Breakdowns in flexible use of information: Intelligence-related differences in transfer following equivalent learning performance

Groups of retarded and nonretarded children were investigated as they learned three rules underlying problems adapted from the Raven Progressive Matrices Test: rotation, imposition, and subtration. The interest was in evaluating group differences in the ease with which the original set of rules was learned and the flexibility with which these rules were transferred to modified contexts. In the case of either learning or transfer, the metric of performance was the amount of aid, specifically the number of computer-generated graduated hints, needed for each subject to solve the problems. The groups were matched on their entering competence to deal with the rules under scrutiny, and also on mental age. No group differences were obtained as the subjects learned the original set of rules. However, on subsequent occasions when required to make flexible use of those rules, clear group differences emerged; and those differences increased as the similarity of the training and test contexts decreased. The results were seen as consistent with theories that emphasize transfer flexibility as one potential source of individual and comparative differences in intelligence.     

The effects of alternatives on the salience of reward allocation norms

In a dyadic bargaining situation there is considerable evidence that the alternative outcomes of the bargainers (if they cannot reach agreement) have important effects on bargaining outcomes. Under the assumption that situational factors affect the nature of the relation between the alternatives of the bargainers and bargaining outcomes, the effects of two factors were assessed: the relative size of the reward to be negotiated (excess of prize minus alternatives) and the magnitude of the difference in the alternatives of the two bargainers. Using college students as subjects, the predictions of two models were also contrasted: the equal excess model and Shapley-w. The relative size of the prize did not have a significant effect on the accuracy of the two models, but the magnitude of the difference in alternatives had marked effects. The results also suggest that the Shapley-w model may be more accurate when the bargainers are relatively inexperienced and cooperatively oriented, whereas the equal excess model may be more accurate when the bargainers are relatively sophisticated and competitively oriented.     

The relationships among cognitive development,locus of control,and gender

Research has shown that perhaps 50% of all adults in this country are not able to perform abstract reasoning tasks described as formal opertions in the Piagetian cognitive developmental framework. Abstract reasoning is related to an individual's ability to perceive contingencies between their actions and subsequent outcomes. This pattern is seen as crucial for the development of an internal locus of control. Fifty-eight male and female undergraduates completed the Rotter Internal-External scale and a Cognitive Developmental Level assessment. For women, a highly significant inverse relationship was demonstrated between cognitive developmental level and locus of control. Women with higher levels of cognitive development were more likely to be internal. For men, no such relationship was found. Such results suggest that locus of control develops differently in men and women.     

The recall and use of belief statements as bases for judgments: Some determinants and implications

When people are asked to report their beliefs in a (target) statement, they may search memory for other, “informational” propositions that bear on its validity, and may use their beliefs in these propositions as bases for their judgments. Several factors were hypothesized to affect the particular propositions that subjects are likely to recall under such conditions. Subjects first familiarized themselves with a list of informational and target propositions. Then, they reported either their beliefs in these propositions or their attitudes toward them. In a second session 1 week later, they recalled as many of the propositions as they could. Both informational and target statements were better recalled when the informational propositions were unlikely to be true. In addition, the target statements were better recalled when the informational propositions associated with them had unclear implications for their validity. Recall of one proposition was more likely to cue the recall of the other when subjects had previously reported belief in the target proposition (rather than attitudes toward it). However, it was more likely to occur when subjects had reported attitudes toward the informational proposition (rather than beliefs in it). The effects of these variables were interpreted in terms of their mediating influence on the strength of association between the informational proposition and both (a) the target proposition and (b) contextual and environmental cues in the situation where target beliefs are reported.     

Effects of alternatives in coalition bargaining

A critical factor in bargaining and coalition formation is the alternative outcomes of the bargainers if an agreement cannot be reached. In some situations bargainers have individual alternatives while in other situations their alternatives must be negotiated with others. The purpose of this study was to contrast the effects of one-person and two-person alternatives on coalition outcomes. The second purpose of the study was to contrast the predictions of four theories of coalition formation: bargaining theory, equal excess model, Shapley value, and a special case of equity theory. The results indicate that one-person alternatives enhance the bargaining strength of the stronger players more than two-person alternatives. The predictions of the equal excess model and the Shapley value were more accurate than the predictions of bargaining theory and equity theory. However, the greater accuracy of the equal excess model and the Shapley value may be restricted to situations in which the bargainers have one-person rather than two-person alternatives.     

Predictors of organizational commitment: The study of part-time army reservists

A predictive model built upon a multiple role conflict/felt responsibility conceptual framework and containing six previously untested predictors and nine previously tested organizational-related predictors of organizational commitment was investigated. The sample consisted of two battalions of U.S. Army Reserve members. Stepwise multiple regression analysis utilizing a double cross-validation design on each battalion was the data analytic technique. Increased job satisfaction and stronger intent to stay consistently entered each equation as the first and second predictors, respectively. Group cohesion also appeared in more than one equation. The variance explained across the four cross-validated samples averaged .46 and the results were very stable. The importance of the investigation of commitment for this part-time, voluntary organization was discussed, as were future research directions regarding organizational commitment.     

Self-esteem and job complexity as moderators of performance and satisfaction

Self-esteem and job complexity were investigated as moderators of self, supervisor, and peer ratings of performance and satisfaction with work, supervisors, and peers testing balance and activation theories. One hundred and fifty-three registered nurses served as subjects. Measured self-esteem was not significantly related to the performance or satisfaction measures. Rather, the important variable was perceived job complexity as predicted by Scott's activation theory. Self-ratings of performance and satisfaction with work and peers were greatest at optimal complexity with lower values at high and low complexity. Some support was found for self-esteem as a moderator of the relationship between performance and satisfaction measures in line with Korman's formulations.     

Developmental differences in rehearsal and free recall

The purpose of this experiment was to analyze developmental differences in rehearsal strategies which may mediate the commonly found age effect on free recall. As expected, significant age differences in recall were found; analysis of rehearsal strategies showed that fifth and eighth graders tended to repeat stimulus words immediately after presentation, and not enter items into subsequent rehearsal sets. Adults, in contrast, tended to reenter items for additional rehearsal, and had larger rehearsal buffers. Immediate repetition may have served as additional massed presentation trials, which are less consequential for learning than later reentry of items (spaced trials). It was inferred that children engaged primarily in maintenance rehearsal, and adults in both maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.     

Self-punitive behavior with changing percentages of reinforcement: The proper role of discrimination

Past research on self-punitive behavior has been interpreted as supporting a theoretical éxplanation based on a vicious circle rather than a discrimination hypothesis. Using rats, Melvin (1964) found that self-punitive behavior is not reduced when discrimination is aided by changing the percentage of shock trials from acquisition to extinction. This past research is inconclusive because it is based on a misinterpretation of what is the critical discrimination for extinction, namely the new response-punishment contingency. Using humans, the present study provides evidence that subjects can and do discriminate the change in percentage, but continue to show self-punitive behavior until they make the discrimination that responding results in shock rather than escape.     

Computer assisted versus traditional vocational counseling with high and low readiness clients

This study tested Hershenson's hypothesis that different vocational counseling methods would be differentially effective for clients at different levels of readiness. The top 54 and bottom 54 high school sophomores from a class of 853 were selected on the basis of their Educational Development Series test scores. Half of each group (highs and lows) received individual counseling; the other half interacted with a computerized vocational information program (CVIS). It was predicted that high readiness subjects would change more with CVIS and lows would change more with counseling. Only the latter prediction was confirmed. The groups did not differ in satisfaction with their posttreatment vocational choices. Findings suggest that individual counseling be emphasized with low readiness clients when both options are available.