Differential production of positive and negative discriminative stimuli by normal and retarded children

Using an observing procedure similar to Wyckoff's (1969), two normal and two mentally retarded children were studied. The children were initially trained to earn pennies by pressing a rectangular key according to a multiple variable-interval extinction schedule of reinforcement. After discrimination training, the children were allowed to produce the discriminative stimuli by depressing a second or observing key. The retarded children were different from the normal children in that they produced more of the positive discriminative stimulus (S+) than the negative discriminative stimulus (S?). In the case of the retarded children, S+ observing started high and remained high. In the case of the normal children, S+ observing was initially substantial and then rapidly diminished.     

Transfer from discrimination under hunger to discrimination under thirst: The role of expectancy and habit

The experimental group (Group HA-TA) received food (F) and water (W) rewarded trials in an alternating sequence under hunger in Phase 1 and under thirst in Phase 2. Group HA-TA ran faster on F than on W trials in Phase 1, and faster on W than on F trials in Phase 2. Early in Phase 2 the difference between speeds on W and F trials was larger for Group HA-TA than for a group which received no runway training in Phase 1 (Group HO-TA), but later in Phase 2 this difference was larger for Group HO-TA than for Group HA-TA. Also in Phase 2 the difference between speeds on W and F trials was larger for Group HA-TA than for a group which received a random sequence of F and W trials under hunger in Phase 1, and smaller for Group HA-TA than for a group which received alternating F and W trials under thirst in both phases. To interpret these results it was assumed that for Group HA-TA the expectancies of reward formed in Phase 1 facilitated development of alternation performance in Phase 2, but that the S-R associative connections formed in Phase 1 inhibited ultimate development of alternation performance in Phase 2.     

Response deprivation and instrumental performance in the controlled-amount paradigm

The response deprivation analysis, previously applied to a paradigm frequently used in free operant experiments, was applied successfully to another paradigm frequently used in discrete trials experiments. Each trial ended when the rat performed 1 lick at an empty tube (E), and either 10 or 100 licks at a second tube containing either saccharin (S) or water (W). Baseline trials were begun by exposing both tubes. Contigency trials required 1 instrumental E-lick for access to the second tube. Rate of instrumental responding, relative to baseline, was directly proportional to the value required if the subject were to perform the contingent licks at their baseline rates. The results also confirmed the predicted functional relations between the absolute rate of instrumental responding and the number of contingent S-licks, the number of contingent W-licks, and hours of water deprivation. Critical implications for the concept of instrumental reinforcement were discussed.     

Retaliatory equity as a factor in humor appreciation

Squelches depicting a protagonist who is provoked and who then retaliates against his provoker were manipulated to effect a variation in the degree of retaliation achieved: extreme underretaliation, underretaliation, fair retaliation, overretaliation, and extreme overretaliation. It was proposed that retaliatory equity, i.e., a situation in which the negative consequences inflicted upon the provoker by the retaliator are of a similar magnitude to the negative consequences initially inflicted upon the retaliator, constitutes an optimal condition for mirth, and that both types of retaliatory inequity, under- and overretaliation, impair humor appreciation in proportion to the magnitude of the resultant inequity. The findings fully supported these propositions.     

Work orientation vs hygienic orientation: A bi-polar approach to the study of work motivation

Based on the work of Herzberg and associates 1959 a bi-polar measure of work orientation vs hygienic orientation was constructed. In addition to providing reliability estimates, the convergent and discriminant validity is shown through correlation of the measure with other measures of work motivation, personality measures, values, and abilities. Finally, criterion-related validity is shown by correlating the new measure with supervisor's ratings of how long it will take newly hired college graduates to reach the third level of management.     

Punishment of observing by a stimulus associated with the lower of two reinforcement frequencies

Three pigeons were used to investigate the effects of a stimulus associated with the lower of two reinforcement frequencies on the response producing it. In a three-key chamber, pecking the center key produced grain on alternating variable-interval schedules with mean durations of 2 min or 30 sec. Initially, green illumination of the keys accompanied the more favorable (30-sec) schedule and red accompanied the less favorable (2-min) schedule. Then the keys remained yellow unless the bird pecked one of the side (observing) keys to produce the discriminative stimuli for a 30-sec period. Subsequently, when red was withheld as a possible consequence of pecking a particular side key, the rate on that key increased; when red was restored, the observing rate decreased. Thus the stimulus associated with less frequent reinforcement had a punishing effect on the behavior producing it. When green was withheld on one of the side keys and the other key produced both colors, observing behavior was not maintained on the red-only key, but was maintained on the key that produced both colors.     

Effect of intensification of annoyance through unrelated residual excitation on substantially delayed hostile behavior

In a field-experimental setting, male and female subjects were provoked or not at a time when residual excitation from prior exposure to communication was of relatively low, intermediate, or high magnitude. Eight days later, subjects were provided with an opportunity to treat their annoyer or nonannoyer in a hostile or beneficial manner. It was found that excitatory residues had no appreciable effect on the behavior of unprovoked subjects. In contrast, excitatory residues prevailing at the time of provocation produced an intensification of delayed hostile behavior. Provoked subjects in the high and intermediate residue conditions retaliated more severely than those in the low residue condition. Retaliation in the high residue condition tended to be more severe than in the intermediate residue condition. No appreciable sex differences were observed. The findings were interpreted as supporting the proposal that the excitatory intensity of acute annoyance critically influences the magnitude of retaliation for considerable periods of time after the dissipation of excitation associated with the initial annoyance.     

Learning and memory of field independent-dependent individuals

It has been proposed that field-independent and field-dependent learners differ more in the processes they use than in the effectiveness of their learning or retention. The present article discusses alternative explanations which emphasize developmental differences and differences in efficiency of performance between field-independent and field-dependent learners. Review of the concept learning literature and some new data suggested that the greater effectiveness of field-independent learners was related to memory efficiency and the ability to conduct combinatorial analysis. Research concerning short-term memory and free recall was also examined. High information load, greater interference potential, and less subjective organization were suggested as factors which contribute to the less efficient memory of field-dependent learners.     

Sex-role and innovative major choice among college students

This study examined the relationship between sex-role and nontraditional major choice. The sample included 693 male and female students enrolled in traditional and nontraditional majors. In addition to exploring this relationship the study had a methodological intent: Could scales derived from previous factor analyses of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory delineate this relationship as readily as the traditional Bem scoring method. Results indicate significant distributional patterns in sex-role and choice of major, which vary by sex. Men tend to choose male-dominated majors, regardless of sex-role. Patterns for females are more complex. The factored scales used in cross-validated discriminate analysis procedures did demonstrate some power to discriminate students in the two majors, suggesting certain implications for sex-role transcendence in vocational settings.