The influence of task variation and maintenance tasks on the learning and affect of autistic children

Analyses of autistic children's learning and affect have begun to consider the role of antecedent variables, including the manner with which tasks are sequenced within instructional sessions. Within the context of a simultaneous-treatments design, this experiment evaluated autistic children's affect and rate of task acquisition under three experimental conditions. The conditions were (1) a constant task condition in which only one acquisition task was presented per session; (2) a varied-acquisition-task condition, in which 10 acquisition tasks were randomly interspersed throughout each session; and (3) a varied-with-maintenance-task condition, which randomly interspersed 5 acquisition tasks and 5 which had been previously acquired. The results showed significantly more efficient learning under the varied-maintenance condition, with no consistent differences separating the other two conditions. In addition, observers' ratings of the children's affect showed that the most positive judgments were produced by the varied-maintenance condition. The varied-acquisition condition was next while the constant task condition always produced the least favorable ratings. These findings are discussed in relation to the literature on massed versus distributed practice, stimulus variation, and success-induced motivation. The implications for upgrading the treatment and education of handicapped children are also reviewed.     

Behavioral contrast and generalization across settings in the treatment of autistic children

Previous research on the generalization of treatment gains across settings has typically focused on the question of whether generalization occurs or does not occur. However, the experimental literature suggests another possibility: that behavioral contrast may occur in extra-therapy settings if the reinforcement procedures in the therapy setting are highly discriminable from those in other settings. Therefore, this investigation was designed to systematically assess whether: (1) a highly discriminable treatment procedure in one setting would produce a behavioral contrast effect in other unmanipulated settings; and (2) such contrast-like trends could be eliminated if initially different reinforcement procedures in two settings were subsequently made similar. The results for the eight autistic children who participated in this investigation showed that: (1) When very different reinforcement procedures (primary rewards or punishment in therapy settings, and no rewards or punishment in extra-therapy settings) were in effect, the children showed contrast-like behavior changes in the untreated extra-therapy settings; and (2) such trends in responding could be eliminated, resulting in generalization of treatment gains, if the reinforcement procedures were subsequently made relatively similar in the two settings, even if the procedures consisted essentially of noncontingent reinforcement.     

Caveats on a process-tracing measure and a remedy

In process-tracing studies, a frequently used index describes whether information selection behavior is attribute — or alternativewise. The performance of this index is investigated under the assumption that subjects select information in a random fashion. The results show that the index may lead to inaccurate conclusions regarding the information-acquisition strategy of a subject. In addition, a Monte Carlo study is conducted that examines the sensitivity of the index to strategy changes. An alternative index is derived and a latent-class model is proposed for a parsimonious representation of individual differences in information acquisition.     

Multitrait Multimethod validation of Implicit Association Test as a measure of individual differences in personality: Is there personality at all?

The objective of the study was to investigate the validity of IAT in the assessment of the Big five personality traits. We employed the Multi-Trait Multi-Method (MTMM) approach on a sample of 146 respondents. We collected measures on IATs assessing Big five personality traits, self-reports, and two ratings of close others of different gender on NEO PI-R. Additionally, we assessed behavior related to the Big five personality traits in a structured interview where three experts independently provided rating measures. MTMM analyses suggest that personality IAT measures have little in common with personality traits measured traditionally using explicit methods. The evidence does not support the claim that personality IAT can serve as a valid measure of individual differences in personality traits.     

What's in an accent? General spontaneous biases against nonnative accents: An investigation with conceptual and auditory IATs

Nonnative accents are prevalent in our globalized world and constitute highly salient cues in social perception. Whereas previous literature has commonly assumed that they cue specific social group stereotypes, we propose that nonnative accents generally trigger spontaneous negatively biased associations (due to a general nonnative accent category and perceptual influences). Accordingly, Study 1 demonstrates negative biases with conceptual IATs, targeting the general concepts of accent versus native speech, on the dimensions affect, trust, and competence, but not on sociability. Study 2 attests to negative, largely enhanced biases on all dimensions with auditory IATs comprising matched native–nonnative speaker pairs for four accent types. Biases emerged irrespective of the accent types that differed in attractiveness, recognizability of origin, and origin‐linked national associations. Study 3 replicates general IAT biases with an affect IAT and a conventional evaluative IAT. These findings corroborate our hypotheses and assist in understanding general negativity toward nonnative accents.     

Self-efficacy and planning strategies can improve physical activity levels in women with a recent history of gestational diabetes mellitus

Introduction: Regular physical activity can reduce the risk of developing diabetes in high risk populations including in women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). This study applied the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) to determine the motivational and volitional factors important in increasing physical activity among women with previous GDM.

Methods: Women with GDM receiving obstetric care at a teaching hospital in Sri Lanka were invited to participate in a survey 6–36 months post-delivery. At baseline and 8 weeks later, 152 women completed postal and telephone surveys that collected socio-cognitive and physical activity data. The study hypotheses were tested using structural equation modelling.

Results: The modified model fit the data well (CFI = .95, TLI = .94, RMSEA = .057) and explained 11% of the variance in behaviour. Action self-efficacy was the only important predictor of intention to be physically active. Intention as well as maintenance self-efficacy predicted planning, which, in turn, predicted physical activity. Planning mediated the effect of intention and self-efficacy (maintenance and recovery) on physical activity.

Conclusion: This study has identified predictors of physical activity among women with previous GDM that can inform intervention studies. Interventions targeting this population need to include planning strategies and enhance self-efficacy.     

Random error reduction in analytic hierarchies: a comparison of holistic and decompositional decision strategies

The principle of ‘divide and conquer’ (DAC) suggests that complex decision problems should be decomposed into smaller, more manageable parts, and that these parts should be logically aggregated to derive an overall value for each alternative. Decompositional procedures have been contrasted with holistic evaluations that require decision makers to simultaneously consider all the relevant attributes of the alternatives under consideration (Fischer, 1977 ). One area where decompositional procedures have a clear advantage over holistic procedures is in the reduction of random error (Ravinder, 1992 ; Ravinder and Kleinmuntz, 1991 ; Kleinmuntz, 1990 ). Adopting the framework originally developed by Ravinder and colleagues, this paper details the results of a study of the random error variances associated with another popular multi‐criteria decision‐making technique, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP); (Saaty, 1977 , 1980 ), as well as the random error variances of a holistic version of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (Jensen, 1983 ). In addition, data concerning various psychometric properties (e.g. the convergent validity and temporal stability) and values of AHP inconsistency are reported for both the decompositional and holistic evaluations. The results of the study show that the Ravinder and Kleinmuntz ( 1991 ) error‐propagation framework extends to the AHP and decompositional AHP judgments are more consistent than their holistic counterparts. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

‘The threat of the Other’: Using mixed quantitative and qualitative methods to elucidate racial and cultural dynamics in the counselling process

This paper examines the use of mixed quantitative and qualitative methods in the study of racial and cultural dynamics in the counselling process. The approach is illustrated by the author's own research which combined quantitative survey instruments with a blend of qualitative methods. Emphasis is given to complex racial and cultural phenomena arising from the qualitative methods of data collection and data analysis, particularly the pervasive experience of ‘threat of the Other’. These phenomena were seen to permeate the counselling interactions both explicitly and implicitly. The emerging racial dynamics are discussed with reference to theoretical concepts which stress the interrelationship between intrapsychic development and sociopolitical issues. The effectiveness of employing pluralistic methods in this field of enquiry is also evaluated.     

Evidence for the underestimation of implicit in-group favoritism among low-status groups

We question the evidence and the reasoning underlying recent research suggesting that members of low-status groups often fail to show in-group favoritism at the implicit level. Specifically, we argue the predominant measure revealing this pattern of group attitudes (the IAT) is influenced by extrapersonal associations, just the sort of information that would lead low-status groups to appear not to prefer their in-group. In the research reported here, respondents from low-status groups (African-Americans in Study 1 and homosexual males in Study 2) exhibited no in-group favoritism on the standard IAT, replicating previous research. However, reliable in-group favoritism by members of both groups was revealed on a personalized IAT [Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2004). Reducing the influence of extrapersonal associations on the Implicit Association Test: Personalizing the IAT. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 653-667] that reduces extrapersonal influences. We also rule out the possibility that differential error rates can account for the different patterns observed on the two versions of the IAT.     

An assessment of the fakeability of self-report and implicit personality measures

Researchers are focusing on developing implicit measures of personality to address concerns related to the faking of self-report measures. The present study examined the validity and fakeability of Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures of personality self-concept in a repeated-measures design (N = 33). People’s predictions about how they represented themselves on the measures were also assessed. Results indicated that participants were able fake self-report measures when instructed to do so and that they could accurately predict how they represented themselves on these measures. Participants were also able to fake an IAT measure of Extraversion, but were unable to fake an IAT measure of Conscientiousness or predict how they represented themselves on either IAT measure.