CONTROL OF ARITHMETIC ERRORS USING INFORMATIONAL FEEDBACK AND GRAPHING1

The effect of informational feedback and graphing on reducing the number of arithmetic worksheet errors was investigated. The present study replicated and extended earlier findings with other populations (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7 , 547–555; 1970, 3 , 1–4; 1970, 3 , 235–240) to a first-grade classroom. Ten first-grade pupils (four males and six females) served in an ABAB design. During the feedback-only phase, subjects were provided informational feedback, in the form of a written number, on the number of errors made on individual arithmetic worksheets. The feedback-only phase lasted seven days and was followed by the feedback-plus-graphing phase, during which subjects graphed the number (of errors written at the top of the individual worksheet) daily on individual graphs on their desks. The feedback-plus-graphing phase lasted 10 days and was followed by a reversal to feedback only for 10 days. The final phase was a replication of the feedback-plus-graphing phase. All subjects showed a change in number of worksheet errors, in the predicted direction, during the feedback-plus-graphing phases. An overall mean difference of ?2.66 was found to be statistically significant (P < 0.01), using a Wilcoxson Matched-Pairs Sign Test. The results were interpreted as being empirical support for earlier findings in other populations. In addition, the present findings represented a successful extension of feedback and graphing interventions to the management of academic behaviors in a first-grade classroom.     

Elicited responding to signals for reinforcement: the effects of overall versus local changes in reinforcement probability

Pigeons were studied on a three-component multiple schedule where all reinforcement was independent of responding. Two components were cued by different keylights and were associated with different rates of reinforcement. The third was always a no-key period associated with extinction. After a few sessions, pecking was elicited by the keylights signalling the reinforcement and continued to be maintained indefinitely. The duration and sequence of the three components were varied to determine if the primary controlling variable was differences in the overall probability of reinforcement, or if it was the immediate change in reinforcement signalled by the onset and/or offset of the stimulus. Both variables were found to control behavior. When 30-sec components were used, the primary controlling variable was the overall probability of reinforcement, but when 3-min components were used, overall probability had little effect. Control by local changes in reinforcement also occurred, although the type of local control varied both across subjects and experimental conditions. Some behaviors were controlled more by the change in reinforcement signalled by the onset of the stimulus, while others were controlled more by the change signalled by the offset of the stimulus.     

Retrospective questions and correlations

In survey research it is not uncommon to ask questions of the following type: “How many times did you undertake actiona in reference periodT of length τ?.” The relationship is established between τ and the correlation of the number of reported actions with some background variable. To this end it is assumed that the process of actions satisfies a renewal model with individual heterogeneity. Also a model has to be formulated for possible recall effects. Applications are given in the field of medical consumption.     

Sequential effects of interval duration on fixed-interval performance

The bar pressing of rats was reinforced on a multiple fixed-interval schedule. The schedule intervals were 1 and 5 min long, and the sequence was such that intervals of either duration were equally likely to be followed by intervals of the same or of the other duration. Rates were higher during 1-min and after 5-min intervals. Best fit equations for cumulative responses during the 5-min intervals produced very similar exponents regardless of preceding duration. It was concluded that preceding duration may have affected the subjects' performances through direct effects on temporal discrimination.     

The impact of spouse monitoring on target behavior and recorder satisfaction

The objectives of this study were (a) to determine the impact of a spouse monitoring procedure on the target's (husband's) behavior and the recorder (wife's) view of the marriage and (b) to assess the relationship between the target's positive behaviors and the recorder's marital satisfaction rating. In one condition, husbands were informed that their behavior was being observed, whereas in a comparison group, husbands were kept unaware of the observation procedure. In both conditions, wives kept daily recordings of (a) positive behaviors emitted by their husbands and (b) perceptions of their marital relationships. No differences were found in rates of husbands' behavior or in wives' perceptions of their marriages as a function of the awareness manipulation. Analyses examining the relationship between spouse behavior and daily satisfaction ratings indicated a statistically reliable association, although the majority of variance in satisfaction ratings was attributable to unique subject variables.This article is based on a thesis submitted by the first author to the Department of Psychology of the University of Pittsburgh. The described research was supported in part by a Faculty Research Grant from the University of Pittsburgh awarded to the second author.     

Infant state in relation to its environmental context

Two neonatal intensive care units (NICU) were observed every 15 minutes for at least 72 consecutive hours. Although infants on both NICUs were exposed to considerable amounts of stimulation, there were differences between the units for each environmental measure in the amount of stimulation and/or the pattern of circadian periodicity. The two NICUs also differed in the amount of time infants spent in various states and in the pattern of state periodicity. In general, the diurnal rhythms of the infant states were associated with the diurnal rhythms of different environmental events; furthermore, the patterns of association were not the same on the two NICUs. The results point to potential problems in depicting a “typical” NICU. More importantly, they suggest that the environmental of NICUs has a recognizable influence on aspects of their inhabitants' behavior and that the nature of influence is different from NICU to NICU. The effects are potentially significant for physical, social, and cognitive development.     

Numeracy in the jury box: Numerical ability,meaningful anchors,and damage award decision making

This project employs an experimental design to test theoretical predictions regarding how numeracy can assist jurors in determining damage awards to compensate a plaintiff for pain and suffering and how the use of meaningful numerical anchors may produce similar benefits. Mock jurors (N = 345) reviewed a legal case and were asked to give a dollar award to compensate the plaintiff for pain and suffering. The presence and nature of a numerical anchor and the duration of pain and suffering were manipulated. Participants' numeracy was measured. Results provided support for predictions. Jurors higher in numeracy gave awards that more appropriately reflected the duration of pain and suffering and showed less variability in awards. Similar benefits were obtained by exposing jurors to meaningful numerical anchors to help them contextualize dollar amounts. Thus, introducing meaningful anchors to jurors may provide similar benefits to numeracy, without the drawbacks associated with selecting only numerate jurors.     

Effect of conducting behavioral observations and ratings on staff implementation of a paired-stimulus preference assessment

We assessed the effects of trainees observing and rating the accuracy of others implementing a paired-stimulus preference assessment from video on the trainees' subsequent implementation accuracy. These observational experiences increased implementation accuracy with both a confederate and an actual consumer. These results suggest conducting observations and accuracy ratings may prepare staff to implement behavioral procedures without need of a dedicated trainer.     

The Power to Detect and Predict Individual Differences in Intra-Individual Variability Using the Mixed-Effects Location-Scale Model

Our goal is to provide empirical scientists with practical tools and advice with which to test hypotheses related to individual differences in intra-individual variability using the mixed-effects location-scale model. To that end, we evaluate Type I error rates and power to detect and predict individual differences in intra-individual variability using this model and provide empirically-based guidelines for building scale models that include random and/or systematically-varying fixed effects. We also provide two power simulation programs that allow researchers to conduct a priori empirical power analyses. Our results aligned with statistical power theory, in that, greater power was observed for designs with more individuals, more repeated occasions, greater proportions of variance available to be explained, and larger effect sizes. In addition, our results indicated that Type I error rates were acceptable in situations when individual differences in intra-individual variability were not initially detectable as well as when the scale-model individual-level predictor explained all initially detectable individual differences in intra-individual variability. We conclude our paper by providing study design and model building advice for those interested in using the mixed-effects location-scale model in practice.     

Examining Transfer Effects of Dual-Task Training Protocols for a Complex Locomotor Task

Training protocols designed to improve dual-task performance of an obstacle crossing and auditory Stroop task (OBS+Stroop) were tested. In Experiment 1, following baseline collection of OBS+Stroop trials, proximally related walking training was performed, and participants were then retested on the OBS+Stroop test. After training, participants adopted a more cautious obstacle crossing strategy, indicating a potentially safer navigation strategy. Transfer effects from distally related training were then examined (Experiment 2); a computer game training paradigm was examined using the same testing protocol as Experiment 1. Computer training demonstrated improved dual-task performance on some measures, but did not induce a more cautious stepping strategy. Results indicate that dual-task training needs to be similar to targeted tasks to yield reliable, positive training outcomes.