基于消费者自我概念的高尔夫消费动机研究*

首先编制了消费者自我概念量表,对高尔夫球会客人进行了消费者自我概念的测查,将高尔夫消费者划分为事业自我型、交际自我型、精明自我型、家庭自我型和表现自我型五大类,进而分析了这五类消费者在参与高尔夫球运动动机和购买高尔夫球会会籍动机方面的差异。结果表明,(1)锻炼身体是消费者参与高尔夫球运动的主要动机。不同自我概念消费者参与高尔夫运动的动机的差异表现在事业自我型消费者与其他群体的差异显著;(2)商务交往是消费者购买球会会籍动机的主要动机,不同自我概念消费者购买球会会籍动机的差异表现在家庭自我型消费者与交际自我型、表现自我型消费者之间存在显著差异。     

A Bayesian approach to exploring expertise and putting success in adolescent and young adult golfers

ObjectivesPutting behaviour was examined to explore if age influenced performance and the development of motor and perceptual-cognitive expertise during late adolescence and early adulthood. We also examined if motor control and perceptual-cognitive expertise was related to performance on a representative putting task.MethodTwenty elite golfers (15 male; 17–24 years old; mean handicap of 0.5) completed eight straight and eight sloped putts at two distances (8ft/2.44m and 15ft/4.57m), on an indoor golf surface. Participants wore an eye tracker whilst putting and putting performance was assessed via putts holed and eye-movement behaviour, examining Quiet Eye (QE, the duration of the final fixation on the ball). A baseline profile for each participant was created using kinematic stroke data (collected using SAM PuttLab), average putts per round, greens in regulation and current practice hours (subjective self-report measures).ResultsBayesian statistical analysis revealed ‘moderate’ evidence that age and baseline kinematic factors did not influence putting success rates. Eye movement data revealed ‘moderate’ evidence that i) successful performance was associated with less variability in QE duration and ii) extended periods of QE were associated with a decline in performance. Previous experience and current skill level were ruled out as potential confounds.ConclusionOur findings reveal that performance and perceptual-cognitive expertise, did not improve with age. We suggest that post 18 years, age should not be considered a factor in talent development programmes for golf putting. We discuss the benefits of adopting a Bayesian approach and suggest future studies employ longitudinal designs to examine changes in expertise over time.     

The effects of smart phone video analysis on focus of attention and performance in practice and competition

ObjectivesResearch has consistently found that focus of attention (FOA) affects motor learning and performance. However, much of the previous work has used artificially manipulated FOA of novice participants performing laboratory tasks. There is a paucity of work that has tested transfer to more complex competition environments. We aimed to investigate the effects of smart phone video analysis, which commonly occurs in natural practice settings in golf, on skilled player’s FOA and performance in both practice and competition.DesignThis study employed a mixed experimental design. The between participants factor was the use of video analysis (practice with video vs practice only) and the repeated measures factor was time point (pre-intervention vs post-intervention).MethodAltogether, 19 skilled golfers (handicap: M = 5.79, SD = 5.80) took part in a four-week practice intervention with (n = 10) or without (n = 9) the use of smart phone video analysis. Driving range performance and competition performance were measured pre- and post-intervention. Practice diaries provided measures of FOA during the intervention period.ResultsThe practice with video group displayed a significantly more internal FOA throughout the intervention period than the practice only group. This resulted in a significant time by group interaction for driving range performance that showed an increase in performance for the practice only group and a decrease for the practice with video group. However, the performance effects did not transfer to competition scores.ConclusionsFindings enhance our understanding of the effects of video analysis on FOA and question whether FOA effects transfer from on range practice to on course performance.     

Reliable measurement in sport psychology: The case of performance outcome measures

ObjectivesThe present research addresses a neglected aspect within the current Zeitgeist of improving methodological standards in (sport)psychology: reliable measurement. We discuss and highlight the importance of reliable measurement from different perspectives and empirically assess reliability of three commonly used performance outcome measures in order to give guidelines to researchers on how to increase reliability of measurements of performance outcomes.MethodIn three studies we estimate 5 different reliability coefficients for three performance outcome measures based on 14 golf putts (study 1; N = 100), 14 dart throws (study 2; N = 200; 100 sports students; 100 non-sports students) and 14 free throws in basketball (study 3; N = 192; 100 non-basketball players; 92 basketball players).ResultsThe highest reliability was the odd-even reliability for darts for the whole sample (0.888), followed by golf putts (0.714 for distance from the hole, 0.614 for successful putts) and free throws (0.504 non-basketball players; 0.62 for basketball players; and 0.826 for whole sample).ConclusionsBased on theoretical considerations and our empirical findings we give practical guidelines to improve reliability for performance outcome measures in sport psychology.     

“You’re only as good as your weakest link”: Implicit theories of golf ability

Objectives

The purpose of this study was to examine the antecedents, specificity, and ceiling effects of golfers’ implicit theories of sport ability.

Design

The present study employs a qualitative research design. A constructivist grounded theory methodology was adopted.

Method

Participants (N = 8) were asked to describe their conceptions of golf ability. All responses were recorded, transcribed, and the data were analyzed through a series of iterations, which led to the identification of three dimensions that constitute golfers’ beliefs about ability.

Results

The three dimensions were: acquirable ability, stable ability, and developing natural attributes. Categories within these dimensions offer initial evidence for the role of social agents and the inherent culture of golf in shaping co-existing beliefs in relation to sport ability. Beliefs with regards to ceiling effects of ability are reported, with one theme proposing a ceiling to sport ability, and a contrasting category exemplifying the belief that there is always room for improvement.

Conclusions

The present study contributes to the field by offering initial evidence for the antecedents, specificity, and ceiling effects of golfers’ conceptions of their sport ability. Implications, both theoretical in terms of future research, and practical with regards to practitioners’ role in educating athletes and cultivating an environment conducive to the perception that sport ability is acquirable, are offered.     

Enhancing performance expectancies through visual illusions facilitates motor learning in children

In a recent study by Chauvel, Wulf, and Maquestiaux (2015), golf putting performance was found to be affected by the Ebbinghaus illusion. Specifically, adult participants demonstrated more effective learning when they practiced with a hole that was surrounded by small circles, making it look larger, than when the hole was surrounded by large circles, making it look smaller. The present study examined whether this learning advantage would generalize to children who are assumed to be less sensitive to the visual illusion. Two groups of 10-year olds practiced putting golf balls from a distance of 2 m, with perceived larger or smaller holes resulting from the visual illusion. Self-efficacy was increased in the group with the perceived larger hole. The latter group also demonstrated more accurate putting performance during practice. Importantly, learning (i.e., delayed retention performance without the illusion) was enhanced in the group that practiced with the perceived larger hole. The findings replicate previous results with adult learners and are in line with the notion that enhanced performance expectancies are key to optimal motor learning (Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016).     

Cognitive demands of error processing associated with preparation and execution of a motor skill

Maxwell et al. [Maxwell, J. P., Masters, R. S. W., Kerr, E., & Weedon, E. (2001). The implicit benefit of learning without errors. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 1049–1068. The implicit benefit of learning without errors. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 1049–1068] suggested that, following unsuccessful movements, the learner forms hypotheses about the probable causes of the error and the required movement adjustments necessary for its elimination. Hypothesis testing is an explicit process that places demands on cognitive resources. Demands on cognitive resources can be identified by measuring probe reaction times (PRT) and movement times. Lengthened PRT and movement times reflects increased cognitive demands. Thus, PRT and movement times should be longer following errors, relative to successful, movements. This hypothesis was tested using a motor skill (golf putting). Furthermore, the association between error processing and the preparation and execution phases of movement was examined. The data confirmed that cognitive demand is greater for trials following an error, relative to trials without an error. This effect was apparent throughout learning and in both the preparatory and execution phases of the movement. Cognitive effort also appeared to be higher during movement preparation, relative to movement execution.     

An acute application of transcranial random noise stimulation does not enhance motor skill acquisition or retention in a golf putting task

Transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS) is a brain stimulation technique that has been shown to increase motor performance in simple motor tasks. The purpose was to determine the influence of tRNS on motor skill acquisition and retention in a complex golf putting task. Thirty-four young adults were randomly assigned to a tRNS group or a SHAM stimulation group. Each subject completed a practice session followed by a retention session. In the practice session, subjects performed golf putting trials in a baseline test block, four practice blocks, and a post test block. Twenty-four hours later subjects completed the retention test block. The golf putting task involved performing putts to a small target located 3 m away. tRNS or SHAM was applied during the practice blocks concurrently with the golf putting task. tRNS was applied over the first dorsal interosseus muscle representation area of the motor cortex for 20 min at a current strength of 2 mA. Endpoint error and endpoint variance were reduced across the both the practice blocks and the test blocks, but these reductions were not different between groups. These findings suggest that an acute application of tRNS failed to enhance skill acquisition or retention in a golf putting task.