外在暗示线索对学习者在多媒体学习中自我调节学习过程的影响

考察139名五、七年级学生在逐次阅读10组图文材料的过程中对阅读测试与媒体信息的关系的自我监察并据此对阅读时间分配模式的自我调节过程,结果发现：（1）二年级被试能够监察阅读测试和图文之间的相倚关系,并据此对图文阅读时间分配模式进行自我调节,分配更多时间在与测试相关的材料上;（2）五、七年级被试的图文时间分配均呈现逐步调节的模式。（3）七年级被试比五年级被试对阅读测试与图文的关系的监察更为准确、时间分配模式调节出现的时机更早,时间分配调节策略的使用更合理,测试成绩更高。     

Immediate reinforcement in delayed reward learning in pigeons

Pigeons were trained on simultaneous red-green discrimination procedures with delayed reward and sequences of stimuli during the delay. In Experiment 1, three stimuli appeared during the 60-second intervals between the correct responses and reward, and the incorrect responses and nonreward. The stimulus that immediately followed a correct response also preceded nonreward, and the stimulus that followed an incorrect response preceded reward. These stimuli were 10 or .33 second in duration for different groups. Stimuli during the remainder of the delay interval differed following correct and incorrect responses. Group 10 initially persisted in the nonrewarded choice, but shifted to a preponderance of rewarded responses after further training. Group .33 rapidly acquired the correct response. Similar results were obtained in Experiment 2 where delay intervals consisted of opposite sequences of two stimuli of equal duration and total delays were 6, 20, or 60 seconds. Early in training, generalization of differential conditioned-reinforcing properties from the conditions preceding reward and nonreward to postchoice conditions had a greater effect relative to backchaining than it did later. It was concluded that delayed-reward learning is best analyzed in terms of the conditioned-reinforcing value of the patterns of cues that follow immediately after rewarded and nonrewarded responses.     

Pigeons' spatial memory: III. Effect of distractors on delayed matching of key location.

The effect of distractors on pigeons' delayed matching of key location was investigated. Baseline trials began with a "ready" stimulus (brief operation of the grain feeder). Then one (randomly chosen) key from a three-by-three matrix was lit briefly as the sample. After a short delay (retention interval) the sample key was lit again along with one of the other eight keys. A peck at the key that had served as the sample (correct comparison) produced grain reinforcement, whereas a peck to the other key (incorrect comparison) produced only the intertrial interval. In Experiment 1, a houselight distractor, presented during either the sample, retention interval, or choice phases of the trial, had little if any effect on accuracy of matching key location. In Experiment 2, one of three types of spatial stimuli was interpolated during the retention interval, or the interval was blank as during baseline trials. The three stimuli were: the sample (correct comparison) location for that trial, the incorrect comparison location for that trial, or one of the seven unused locations for that trial. Relative to blank trials, accuracy improved slightly on sample-interpolated trials, decreased slightly on unused location-interpolated trials, and decreased considerably on incorrect comparison-interpolated trials. In Experiment 3, retention intervals were blank or had one of six types of interpolation: the sample, the incorrect comparison, two presentations of the sample, two presentations of the incorrect comparison, the sample followed by the incorrect comparison, or the incorrect comparison followed by the sample.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

What am I supposed to be looking at? Controls and measures in inter-modal preferential looking

Intermodal preferential looking (IMPL) is widely used in experimental studies of infant development, especially language development. Control measures vary, and it is not clear how these affect findings. We examined effects of parental awareness of stimuli. Infants (17–19 months) looked at paired pictures, one name-known and one name-unknown, each assigned target status in 50 % of trials. Infants looked longer at a name-known than a name-unknown target, regardless of parents’ awareness. When parents were aware, looking to a name-unknown target increased over a paired name-known non-target. There is evidence that infants’ looking at pictures in this paradigm is not due to direct matching of targets to novel names, but is influenced by additional cues present, in a way that could alter the conclusions of studies of infant word learning and other aspects of infant learning. Implications of these findings are discussed, emphasising replicability and theoretical conclusions drawn from studies using this method.     

THE EFFECTS OF SEQUENTIAL PICTORIAL CUES,SELF-RECORDING,AND PRAISE ON THE JOB TASK SEQUENCING OF RETARDED ADULTS

The present study investigated the effects of a self-recording procedure using sequentially organized picture cues on independent task changes of four mentally retarded adults. Independent task changes were identified as the beginning of new tasks without directives or instruction. In addition to investigating treatment effects, the long-term maintenance of the task-change behavior was measured. During self-recording and picture-cue training, the subjects completed an increased proportion of independent task changes, and this behavior was maintained for more than 10 wk following removal of the training procedures. Self-recording using picture cues was shown to be an effective procedure for teaching mentally retarded adults to function more independently in a job setting.     

他人注视对不诚实行为的影响

有研究发现,他人的注视会使人们倾向于遵循社会规则,但甚少发现他人注视状态对不诚实行为的影响。该研究旨在通过比较眼睛的呈现类型和形式对不诚实行为的影响,来考察哪种注视状态能有效抑制个体的不诚实行为。结果发现,非伴随注视状态下,被试表现出不诚实行为,且不同类型的眼睛对被试的不诚实行为没有影响; 伴随注视状态下,直视眼抑制了被试的不诚实行为,而斜视眼则没有。这表明他人持续的注视可能作为内隐的名誉线索在一定程度上抑制了人们的不诚实行为。     

Extrafoveal Processing in Categorical Search for Geometric Shapes: General Tendencies and Individual Variations

The paper addresses the capabilities and limitations of extrafoveal processing during a categorical visual search. Previous research has established that a target could be identified from the very first or without any saccade, suggesting that extrafoveal perception is necessarily involved. However, the limits in complexity defining the processed information are still not clear. We performed four experiments with a gradual increase of stimuli complexity to determine the role of extrafoveal processing in searching for the categorically defined geometric shape. The series of experiments demonstrated a significant role of extrafoveal processing while searching for simple two-dimensional shapes and its gradual decrease in a condition with more complicated three-dimensional shapes. The factors of objects’ spatial orientation and distractor homogeneity significantly influenced both reaction time and the number of saccades required to identify a categorically defined target. An analysis of the individual p-value distributions revealed pronounced individual differences in using extrafoveal analysis and allowed examination of the performance of each particular participant. The condition with the forced prohibition of eye movements enabled us to investigate the efficacy of covert attention in the condition with complicated shapes. Our results indicate that both foveal and extrafoveal processing are simultaneously involved during a categorical search, and the specificity of their interaction is determined by the spatial orientation of objects, type of distractors, the prohibition to use overt attention, and individual characteristics of the participants.     

Six-month-olds’ ability to use linguistic cues when interpreting others’ pointing actions

The present research investigated whether six-month-olds who rarely produce pointing actions can detect the object-directedness and communicative function of others’ pointing actions when linguistic information is provided. In Experiment 1, infants were randomly assigned to either a novel-word or emotional-vocalization condition. They were first familiarized with an event in which an actor uttered either a novel label (novel-word condition) or exclamatory expression (emotional-vocalization condition) and then pointed to one of two objects. Next, the positions of the objects were switched. During test trials, each infant watched the new-referent event where the actor pointed to the object to which the actor had not pointed before or the old-referent event where the actor pointed to the old object in its new location. Infants in the novel-word condition looked reliably longer at the new-referent event than at the old-referent event, suggesting that they encoded the object-directedness of the actor’s point. In contrast, infants in the emotional-vocalization condition showed roughly equal looking times to the two events. To further examine infants’ understanding of the communicative aspect of an actor’s point using a different communicative context, Experiment 2 used an identical procedure to the novel-word condition in Experiment 1, except there was only one object present during the familiarization trials. When the familiarization trials did not include a contrasting object, we found that the communicative intention of the actor’s point could be ambiguous. The infants showed roughly equal looking times during the two test events. The current research suggests that six-month-olds understand the object-directedness and communicative intention of others’ pointing when presented with a label, but not when presented with an emotional non-speech vocalization.     

“有声有色”的触觉体验：来自多感觉通道整合的线索

虚拟现实技术通过提供视觉、听觉和触觉等信息为用户创造身临其境的感知体验, 其中触觉反馈面临诸多技术瓶颈使得虚拟现实中的自然交互受限。基于多感官错觉的伪触觉技术可以借助其他通道的信息强化和丰富触觉感受, 是目前虚拟现实环境中优化触觉体验的有效途径。本文聚焦于触觉中最重要的维度之一——粗糙度, 试图为解决虚拟现实中触觉反馈的受限问题提供新思路。探讨了粗糙度感知中, 视、听、触多感觉通道整合的关系, 分析了视觉线索(表面纹理密度、表面光影、控制显示比)和听觉线索(音调/频率、响度)如何影响触觉粗糙度感知, 总结了当下调控这些因素来改变粗糙度感知的方法。最后, 探讨了使用伪触觉反馈技术时, 虚拟现实环境中视、听、触觉信息在呈现效果、感知整合等方面与真实世界相比可能存在的差异, 提出可借鉴的改善触觉体验的适用方法和未来待研究的方向。     

掌握程度和社会性线索对元认知监控的影响

元认知监控中信心判断和再认答案的调整不仅受到个体学习后掌握程度的影响,还会受到社会性线索的影响。本研究通过两个实验,考察了掌握程度和社会性线索对元认知监测和控制的影响。研究发现：第一,掌握程度和社会性线索独立影响元认知监测。第二,掌握程度和社会性线索显著影响元认知控制,并且掌握程度还起到了调节作用。具体来说,掌握程度高时,个体倾向于坚持自己的最初选择,较少受到社会性线索的影响;掌握程度越低,社会性线索的影响越大,个体倾向于使自己的选择与社会性信息保持一致。最后,研究总结了学习任务中掌握程度和社会性线索对元认知监控的影响机制,并提出了未来的研究思路。