Individual differences in learning and memory: A unitary information processing approach

Recent research in the area of individual differences in learning and memory is reviewed from a cognitive perspective. Using the two-state model of memory as a framework, individual variations in attentional, short-term store, and long-term store processes are discussed. The focus is on using individual differences to evaluate nomothetic cognitive models, as well as on using cognitive models in guiding research on individual differences. Both within-individual and between-individual differences in basic processes are examined. In so doing, the importance of strategy choice is stressed using the concept of cognitive flexibility. Several promising directions, both methodological and theoretical, are noted and the value of using specific information processing models in the study of individual differences is emphasized.     

Hemispheric functions in the processing of agent-patient information.

Left and right hemisphere processing capabilities for pictorial information about agent (performer of an action) and patient (recipient of an action) relations were assessed in a tachistoscopic study. Subjects were presented pictures in either the right or the left visual field depicting an agent-action-patient event. They were asked to locate which side of the drawing contained the agent and, in separate trials, which side contained the patient. Reaction times to locate the agent were significantly faster than to locate the patient, regardless of the field of presentation. The results are discussed in terms of a general nonlinguistic processing constraint that favors agent information. It is suggested that this processing asymmetry may underlie syntactic asymmetries regarding the expression of agents and patients in language.     

The influence of prosody on the recall of monaurally presented sentences.

Semantically anomolous sentences, which were spoken prosodically or in an even monotone, were presented monaurally and recalled after 5 sec of interpolated counting. Recall was superior in the Prosody condition, and performance in the Monotone condition showed no improvement when subjects were given prior knowledge of the syntactic structure. Also, a right ear advantage was found in the Prosody condition. The influence of prosody was attributed to its role in directing attention and providing continuity during memorization of the sentences, this being more effective when the information was received by the language hemisphere from the right ear.     

Locus of control and causal attribution for positive and negative outcomes on university examinations

One-hundred-five internal and external locus of control subjects attributed responsibility for their positive and negative outcomes on a university examination. Internal and positive outcome subjects attributed responsibility to internal causal factors while external and negative outcome subjects were more external in their causal attributions. Overall ratings of the four causal components ability, effort, task, and luck were not always in accord with the Weiner model two-dimensional classification.     

Genetic Counseling, Reproductive Behavior and Future Reproductive Intentions of People with Neurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1)

Neurofibromatosis type 1(NF1) is a complex and variable inherited disorder. The complexity and variability present particular difficulty for genetic counseling. Thirty-three people with NF1 of reproductive age were interviewed about their experience of genetic counseling, their past reproductive behavior and future intentions. One third reported having had no genetic counseling or not having it until after their first child. In part, this may be due to delay in diagnosis but also indicates poor access to genetic services. Only three people had ever been offered prenatal genetic testing and only one had accepted. Although testing is still technically difficult, the greatest deterrent to uptake of prenatal testing for NF1 is the variability of the disorder. However, six of the 17 people planning future pregnancies would want a test with a view to termination if necessary. Others would welcome testing in order to be prepared but not to terminate. We discuss some of the factors which influence reproductive decision making for people with NF1 and some of the difficulties in genetic counseling in such a variable and complex disorder.     

Bayesian Modal Estimation for the One-Parameter Logistic Ability-Based Guessing (1PL-AG) Model

The calibration of the one-parameter logistic ability-based guessing (1PL-AG) model in item response theory (IRT) with a modest sample size remains a challenge for its implausible estimates and difficulty in obtaining standard errors of estimates. This article proposes an alternative Bayesian modal estimation (BME) method, the Bayesian Expectation-Maximization-Maximization (BEMM) method, which is developed by combining an augmented variable formulation of the 1PL-AG model and a mixture model conceptualization of the three-parameter logistic model (3PLM). By comparing with marginal maximum likelihood estimation (MMLE) and Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) in JAGS, the simulation shows that BEMM can produce stable and accurate estimates in the modest sample size. A real data example and the MATLAB codes of BEMM are also provided.     

Short‐term psychodynamic infant–parent interventions at Child health centers: Outcomes on parental depression and infant social–emotional functioning

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) demonstrate efficacy of parent–infant psychotherapy, but its applicability and effectiveness in public health care are less known. The method followed is Naturalistic study evaluating Short‐term Psychodynamic Infant–Parent Interventions at Child Health Centers (SPIPIC) in Stockholm, Sweden. One hundred distressed mothers with infants were recruited by supervised nurses. Six therapists provided 4.3 therapy sessions on average (SD = 3.3). Sessions typically included the mothers, often with the baby present, while fathers rarely attended sessions. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and the Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social–Emotional (ASQ: SE) were distributed at baseline and at 3 and 9 months later. Data from a nonclinical group were collected simultaneously to provide norm data. Multilevel growth models on the mothers’ questionnaire scores showed significant decreases over time on both measures. Nine months after baseline, 50% achieved a reliable change on the EPDS and 14% on the ASQ: SE. Prepost effect‐sizes (d) were 0.70 and 0.40 for EPDS and ASQ: SE, figures that are comparable to results of other controlled studies. Psychotherapists integrated with public health care seem to achieve good results when supporting distressed mothers with brief interventions in the postnatal period. SPIPIC needs to be compared with other modalities and organizational frameworks.     

The Discursive Performance of Change Process in Systemic and Constructionist Therapies: A Systematic Meta‐Synthesis Review of In‐Session Therapy Discourse

Despite the emphasis of systemic and constructionist approaches on discourse and interaction, to date there has been no comprehensive overview of how change process is performed within in‐session therapeutic dialogue. In this paper, we present a qualitative meta‐synthesis of 35 articles reporting systemic and constructionist therapy process data from naturally occurring therapeutic dialogue. The studies were selected following the screening against eligibility criteria of a total sample of 2,977 studies identified through a systematic search of PsycINFO and MEDLINE databases. Thematic analysis of the 35 studies’ findings identified four main themes depicting change process performance: (a) shifting to a relational perspective, (b) shifting to non‐pathologizing therapeutic dialogue, (c) moving‐forward dialogue, and (d) the dialogic interplay of power. Findings highlight the interactional and discursive matrix within which systemic and constructionist change process occurs. Findings illuminate the value of qualitative research studies sampling naturally occurring therapeutic discourse in bringing this matrix forth, particularly when utilizing discursive methodologies like conversation or discourse analysis.     

Disentangling the Relations Between Different Components of Family Socioeconomic Status and Chinese Preschoolers’ School Readiness

Family socioeconomic status (SES) has been frequently linked to children’s early development. Treating SES as an aggregated variable has many issues, as different components of SES may relate to child outcomes through divergent mechanisms. The purpose of the study was to examine whether parents’ engagement in home learning activities and children’s participation in extracurricular activities (EAs) would function as pathways through which individual SES components related to children’s school readiness. A total of 588 families with preschool‐aged children were recruited from Guangdong province in China. Children’s receptive vocabulary, Chinese reading, and early math skills were individually assessed at three time points, and children’s social skills were rated by parents. Parents reported their engagement in home learning activities with children and their children’s participation in EAs. The results showed that all three components of family SES were related to multiple aspects of children’s school readiness, but through different pathways. Parental income was related to children’s school readiness through EA participation only; parental education and occupational status were associated with school readiness via both parental engagement and child EA participation. The findings suggest that considering SES components separately will produce a more nuanced understanding of the divergent pathways through which family SES may relate to children’s school readiness. Chinese government may provide parent education programs focused on cognitive stimulation for low‐SES families to promote children’s school readiness. Furthermore, the government needs to ensure children’s equal access to EAs to prevent increasing the developmental gap among children from discrepant socioeconomic backgrounds.     

How is Systemic and Constructionist Therapy Change Process Narrated in Retrospective Accounts of Therapy? A Systematic Meta‐synthesis Review

Despite the considerable potential of qualitative approaches for studying the systemic and constructionist therapy process due to shared theoretical and epistemological premises, to date there is lack of a comprehensive qualitative synthesis of how change process is experienced and conceptualized by clients and therapists. To address this evidence gap, we performed a systematic meta‐synthesis review of 30 studies reporting clients’ and therapists’ retrospective narratives of change process across systemic and constructionist models and across a range of client configurations, including individuals, couples, families, and groups. The studies were identified following a systematic search in PsycINFO and MEDLINE resulting in 2,977 articles, which were screened against eligibility criteria. Thematic analysis led to the identification of four main themes: (1) navigating through differences, (2) toward nonpathologizing construction of problems, (3) navigating through power imbalances, and (4) toward new and trusting ways of relating. Findings illustrate the multifaceted aspects of systemic and constructionist change process, the importance for their reflexive appraisal, and the need for further research contributing to the understanding of the challenges inherent in the systemic and constructionist therapeutic context.