Focus of attention and placebo utility

The effects of focus of attention and expected drug effects on reactions to a placebo were examined in two experiments. In the first experiment self-aware and non-self-aware subjects were given a placebo that was said to be either performance-facilitating or inhibiting and then they worked on a set of arithmetic problems. It was expected that the non-self-aware subjects, but not the self-aware subjects, would display a self-serving bias in their attributions regarding the effects of the placebo. Specifically, it was predicted that non-self-aware subjects would attribute more arousal to the performance-inhibiting drug than the performance-facilitating drug since such attributions would be more psychologically beneficial or “useful” in the sense that they would make actual performance on the task look more impressive. Consistent with these predictions, there was evidence of a self-serving bias in drug reactions only among the non-self-focused subjects. Those who were made self-aware did not respond differentially to the two types of drug information. Instead, they appeared to respond in line with their actual (aroused) internal states by attributing some arousal to both drugs. In the second experiment arousal was reduced by eliminating the task, and this time self-focused subjects again appeared to be more aware of their actual internal states, as they reported less reaction to the placebo, regardless of the effects ascribed to it. Two conclusions are drawn from these results: (a) perceived drug utility does effect placebo responsiveness, and (b) self-focused attention increases awareness of internal states, but not necessarily the causes of those states.     

Causes of young children's confusion of same and different

Three experiments are reported that explore 3-year-olds' and adults' understanding of the words, same and different. In the first, 3-year-olds selected a bead that was “the same color as” or “a different color from” a target bead. In the second, 3-year-olds selected a bead that was “the same in some way as” or “different in some way from” a target bead. Contrary to results reported previously, the majority of consistent responders chose a bead identical with the target in response to the different instruction in both experiments. The rates of both incorrect different responding and incorrect same responding were greater in Experiment II than in Experiment I. In Experiment III, adults chose objects that were “the same as” or “different from” a target; unlike the children, they never chose a target-identical object in response to different instructions. It is argued that children and adults treat same and different differently, and that children's task performance is influenced by three factors: semantic, pragmatic, and nonlinguistic.     

Behavioral expectations of retarded and nonretarded children

Two experiments were conducted to examine the effect of the mental retardation (MR) label on impression formation among retarded and nonretarded children and adolescents. The first experiment, conducted with nonretarded children in a mainstreamed school, indicated that they have pessimistic expectations of retarded children with regard to cognitive and ability-related behaviorsand, to a lesser extent, social behaviors (i.e., getting married). However, their reactions were not as pessimistic nor as “patronizing” as were those demonstrated by college students in previous research. In the second experiment, mentally retarded adolescents indicated that they also have negative behavioral expectations of retarded children, however, their self expectations were negative only for social behaviors. The results suggest that, among retarded persons, the expectations associated with the MR label are negative for social behavior, but apparently less pessimistic for cognitive and ability related tasks.     

A constraint on comparisons: Equally detailed alternatives

Children's errors in collective comparison tasks are atributed to the comparison of the wrong classes. It is specifically hypothesized that alternative classes are erroneously formed subject to the constrain that the same kinds of properties are criterial for each alternative. This hypothesis, called the equally detailed alternatives hypothesis, is tested in three experiments with hierarchically organized stimuli and requests to compare a superordinate class and a nonincluded subclass, for example, dogs and yellow cats. In all three experiments 4-year-old children's comparisons were found to be in accord with the hypothesis. In the first experiment both perceptual and linguistic factors determine which classes are compared. In the second experiment, as predicted, erroneous subclass comparisons were more common when all subclasses were distinguished by the same kinds of properties. In the third experiment, the children were asked to partition the stimulus objects into the classes to be compared. The vast majority of partitions were erroneous and in accord with the hypothesis. Potential benefits of the constrain are considered.     

The early history of the behavior modification of stuttering: From laboratory to clinic

The knowledge of and attitudes toward stuttering of 152 Alabama vocational rehabilitation counselors were studied using the Alabama Rehabilitation Counselors' Attitudes Toward Stuttering (ARCATS) Inventory consisting of 25 true- false statements designed to assess knowledge of stuttering and 15 statements designed to assess attitudes toward stuttering. Counselors were found to perceive stuttering as being significantly vocationally handicapping and amenable to therapy and to perceive stutterers as almost always benefiting from therapy and as being good candidates for vocational rehabilitation. It was concluded that the vocational rehabilitation counselors studied hold attitudes facilitative to the rehabilitation of stutterers.     

Boredom: Practical consequences and a theory

Boredom is defined as a unique psychophysiological state possessing interrelated and inseparable emotional, motivational, perceptual and cognitive concomitants. Practical consequences of boredom are reviewed, including diminished performance efficiency, general life satisfaction and health. Finally, the outline of a theoretical model is presented.     

Odor production and utilization under conditions of nonreward and small reward

A series of five experiments was conducted to examine odor production and utilization under conditions of contrasting large and small reward. Using daily, eight-trial double-alternation sequences of reward (L)-nonreward (N) or small reward (S), i.e., LLNNLLNN and LLSSLLSS, appropriate patterning was shown only when an empty goalbox was initially encountered on N or S trials (Experiments 1–5). Manipulations designed to increase frustration, for example, preceding double-alternation training with a block of large-reward trials in Experiment 2, or increasing the L vs S ratio in Experiment 3, failed to yield patterning when small reward was presented at the start of the S-trial confinement period. Patterning was shown when small reward was presented at the end of the S-trial confinement (Experiments 4 and 5). Immediate vs delayed (30 sec) S or N trial goalbox removal failed to result in differences in patterning (Experiments 1 and 2). To distinguish odor production from odor use, subjects trained on an LLSSLLSS pattern preceded subjects trained on an LLNNLLNN pattern (Experiment 5). Because patterning failed to develop in the LLSSLLSS subjects and the first subject in the LLNNLLNN group, it was concluded that a discriminably different cue was not produced on S trials under the LLSSLLSS sequence when small reward was delivered at the beginning of the goalbox confinement period. Shifting small-reward delivery to the end of goalbox confinement resulted in the immediate display of patterning by the first LLNNLLNN subject, and the subsequent development of patterning by the LLSSLLSS subjects.     

Internal-External Control and beliefs about automobile travel

It was hypothesized that the Internal-External Locus of Control dimension (Rotter, 1966) would predict reported feelings about automobile travel and attribution of responsibility for automobile accidents. Relative to Externals, Internals were found (a) to attribute responsibility for automobile accidents more to internal, controllable causes; (b) to report less anxiety when travelling via automobile; (c) to report wearing seatbelts more often; and (d) to experience automobile travel as more interesting and involving.     

Relationship of vocational maturity to work values

This study examined the relationship of vocational maturity to work values. Two hypotheses were tested: (1) Vocational maturity is positively related to differentiation of work values within subjects. (2) Vocational maturity is positively associated with intrinsic work values and negatively associated with extrinsic work values. Sixty-two subjects enrolled in remedial reading at a community college were administered the Vocational Development Inventory-Attitude Scale and the Work Values Inventory. Data analyses supported hypothesis 1 for females, but not for males, and partially supported hypothesis 2.