Vicarious shame

We examined an account of vicarious shame that explains how people can experience a self-conscious emotion for the behaviour of another person. Two divergent processes have been put forward to explain how another's behaviour links to the self. The group-based emotion account explains vicarious shame in terms of an in-group member threatening one's social identity by behaving shamefully. The empathy account explains vicarious shame in terms of empathic perspective taking; people imagine themselves in another's shameful behaviour. In three studies using autobiographical recall and experimental inductions, we revealed that both processes can explain why vicarious shame arises in different situations, what variation can be observed in the experience of vicarious shame, and how all vicarious shame can be related to a threat to the self. Results are integrated in a functional account of shame.     

Operant conditioning of autobiographical memory retrieval

Functional avoidance is considered as one of the key mechanisms underlying overgeneral autobiographical memory (OGM). According to this view OGM is regarded as a learned cognitive avoidance strategy, based on principles of operant conditioning; i.e., individuals learn to avoid the emotionally painful consequences associated with the retrieval of specific negative memories. The aim of the present study was to test one of the basic assumptions of the functional avoidance account, namely that autobiographical memory retrieval can be brought under operant control. Here 41 students were instructed to retrieve personal memories in response to 60 emotional cue words. Depending on the condition, they were punished with an aversive sound for the retrieval of specific or nonspecific memories in an operant conditioning procedure. Analyzes showed that the course of memory specificity significantly differed between conditions. After the procedure participants punished for nonspecific memories retrieved significantly more specific memories compared to participants punished for specific memories. However, whereas memory specificity significantly increased in participants punished for specific memories, it did not significantly decrease in participants punished for nonspecific memories. Thus, while our findings indicate that autobiographical memory retrieval can be brought under operant control, they do not support a functional avoidance view on OGM.     

Social anxiety and self-protective communication style in close relationships

People with higher social anxiety tend to reveal less information about themselves in interactions with strangers, and this appears to be part of a self-protective strategy adopted in situations in which the risk of negative evaluation is judged to be particularly high. This research examined whether a similar style of communication may be adopted by people with higher social anxiety in their close relationships, and whether it may be associated with decrements in the quality (support, depth, conflict) of these relationships. Over 300 people from the community completed a series of online questionnaires measuring social anxiety and depression, and disclosure in and quality of their close friendships and romantic relationships. After controlling for levels of depression, social anxiety was associated with a paucity of disclosure in both romantic relationships and close friendships in females, but not males. There was an indirect association between higher social anxiety and lower relationship quality (lower support, with a trend towards greater conflict) via lower self-disclosure in women's romantic relationships, but not their close friendships. Addressing disclosure in the context of close relationships may assist socially anxious women to develop more fulfilling and harmonious close relationships.     

What Do We Compare When We Compare Religions? Philosophical Remarks on the Psychology of Studying Comparative Religion Abroad

The issue of comparison is a vexing one in religious and theological studies, not least for teachers of comparative religion in study abroad settings. We try to make familiar ideas fresh and strange, in settings where students may find it hard not to take “fresh” and “strange” as signs of existential threat. The author explores this delicate pedagogical situation, drawing on several years' experience directing a study abroad program and on the thought of figures from the Western existentialist tradition and Chinese Confucian philosophy. The article focuses particularly on “oh events” – defined as moments when one learns one has something to learn and something to unlearn. The author argues that the experience of shame that is typical of oh events can become a valuable resource for cross‐cultural learning and personal transformation, if teachers assist students to reflect on the experience as a sign of differing, but potentially harmonizable, cultural expectations. This essay is published alongside of six other essays, including a response from John Barbour, comprising a special section of the journal (see Teaching Theology and Religion 18:1, January 2015).     

“Mindful helpers”: Experiential avoidance,meta-emotions,and emotion regulation in paramedics

Three facets of the mindfulness/acceptance spectrum have been investigated in 134 experienced paramedics exposed to a number of potentially traumatic events. The contribution of (1) experiential avoidance, (2) mindful awareness and (3) meta-emotions in psychological well-being and satisfaction with life was analysed. Changes in these variables due to experiencing highly stressful incidents were explored by comparing experts with 105 novices. With accumulating experience, experiential avoidance remained stable, mindful awareness markedly increased at first and declined thereafter. Both positive and negative meta-emotions decreased with the number of stressful incidents. Experiential avoidance and meta-emotions explained 62% of the variance in psychological well-being, and patterns indicate that non-acceptance of thoughts and emotions might not be generally detrimental in this sample. Being stern and contemptuous about one’s own feelings and having little self-compassion has been found to be beneficial for psychological well-being in these experts. Although this is contrary to contemporary theorizing it might perfectly reflect the role of paramedics and their need for control.     

Inconsistencies in the Reporting of Perceived Trauma Severity Among Acute Physical Injury Survivors

This study aimed to identify and predict inconsistency in perceived trauma severity reports over time among trauma survivors. Hospitalized adult survivors of a traumatic injury completed trauma exposure assessments within 40 days post-injury and 6 weeks later (n = 77). The following trauma severity characteristics were examined: (1) threat of loss of life, (2) threat of loss of a body part, (3) threat of serious injury, and (4) peritraumatic emotionality. Potential predictors of inconsistency were also examined. About half of the reports regarding perceived trauma severity characteristics were inconsistent between the baseline to 6-week assessment. The inconsistent reports were mostly small and equally likely to be either more or less severe over time. Increases in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; especially avoidance) predicted increases in severity of life threat and threat of loss of a body part. Thus, acute reports of perceived trauma severity vary and are influenced by PTSD symptoms.     

Frequency of Interpersonal Trauma Types,Avoidant Attachment,Self-Compassion,and Interpersonal Competence: A Model of Persisting Posttraumatic Symptoms

Given limited knowledge about how psychosocial factors interact to modulate posttraumatic stress symptoms, this study evaluated an integrative model proposing that experiencing more interpersonal trauma types (e.g., abuse, assault, rape, etc.) leads to greater avoidant attachment and lower self-compassion, which limits the development and use of effective interpersonal skills. In turn, lower levels of self-compassion and interpersonal competence perpetuate posttraumatic symptoms. Anonymous trauma-experienced adults (n = 132) completed self-report measures in an online study hyperlinked on trauma support websites. Data were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling, which provided support for the hypothesized model. Specifically, higher frequency of interpersonal trauma types experienced was linked to higher avoidant attachment and lower self-compassion, which in turn were associated with lower interpersonal competence, which correlated with greater posttraumatic stress symptoms. Although cross-sectional data cannot address directionality of associations, this study’s findings emphasize the potential utility of future longitudinal research designed to examine possible causal relationships among these specific psychosocial factors. For example, study findings suggest that those who experience more types of interpersonal trauma and who are characterized by avoidant attachment and lower self-compassion and interpersonal competence may be the most susceptible to experiencing severe posttraumatic symptoms. However, findings also suggest that efforts to increase self-compassion and interpersonal skills may help reduce symptoms.     

Past Trauma and Current Stress and Coping: Toward a General Model

Studies find trauma to both sensitize and steel its victims to subsequent stress, but results are specific to certain populations, traumas, or indices of stress and coping. Here, a general population sample (N = 255) completed comprehensive measures of trauma, stress, and coping to suggest a general model of their relationships. Regressions showed childhood—but not lifetime—trauma linked to avoidant coping and greater stress, indicating a partial mediation model. Structural equation modeling (SEM) verified that childhood trauma predicted adult stress both directly and through avoidance. Limitations of present methods, and suggestions for continuing the development of a general trauma-coping-stress model, are discussed.     

Life hassles, experiential avoidance and distressing delusional experiences

Life hassles have been implicated in both the formation and maintenance of psychosis symptoms. However, little is understood about the mechanism through which these stressors impact on psychosis. The current study proposed experiential avoidance (EA), a psychological coping style that is a central focus for change in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), as a potential mediator of the link between life hassles and both the emergence and maintenance of delusional ideation. Participants were recruited to a non-clinical sample (N = 133) and a clinical sample of psychosis patients (N = 100). All participants completed a self-report questionnaire including a measure of delusions and delusional distress (Peters Delusions Inventory), life hassles (Survey of Recent Life Experiences) and EA (Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II). Mediation testing (bootstrapping) indicated a significant mediation effect of EA in the relationship between life hassles and both delusions and delusional distress, in both clinical and non-clinical samples. The findings suggest that individuals (irrespective of their diagnostic status) with a tendency to suppress or avoid unwanted thoughts are significantly more likely to experience distressing delusions in response to stressful life occurrences. The use of ACT and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy to reduce EA in those at risk of emerging delusions and in patients with an already established psychosis is discussed.