Do experiments in the virtual world effectively predict how pedestrians evaluate electric vehicle sounds in the real world?

New laws stipulate that electric vehicles must emit additional sounds to alert pedestrians of the vehicles’ approach to prevent potential collisions. These new sounds will also influence pedestrians’ impression of the vehicle brand. A methodology has been developed to evaluate electric vehicle (EV) sounds in a virtual-world environment by assessing; (a) detectability and recognisability to ensure pedestrians’ safety, and (b) emotional evaluation of the sound quality to determine its impact on the perception of the vehicle brand. This experimental study examines external validity of the methodology. Fourteen participants evaluated an EV, emitting three sounds, in a traffic scenario in a real-world and a virtual-world environment. The traffic scenario involved a pedestrian ‘standing’ at a residential road junction while the EV travelled at 12 mph from behind the pedestrian, arriving at the junction at one of two pre-set times. Results show that the presented virtual-world methodology accurately predicts pedestrians’ evaluation of detectability of EV sounds and powerfulness and pleasantness of the vehicle brand in the corresponding real-world scenario. It also predicts the ranked order of sounds in the real-world for detection distance and recognisability. Arguably, for similar methods and setups, virtual-worlds would effectively predict pedestrians’ evaluation in the real-world. Interestingly, varying a vehicle’s arrival time, just like a real-world scenario, is found to affect pedestrians’ detection rate. Unlike experiments in the real-world, the presented methodology for experiments in virtual-world benefits from being reliable, quick, easy to implement, with more experimental control and options to easily manipulate any experiment variables.     

Acceptance versus distraction: brief instructions, metaphors and exercises in increasing tolerance for self-delivered electric shocks

The current study compared the effects of an acceptance versus distraction rationale on coping with experimentally induced pain. Eighty participants were randomly assigned to one of five conditions: Full-Acceptance, Full-Distraction, Instruction-only-Acceptance, Instruction-only-Distraction and No-Instructions. Participants completed a simple matching task and were intermittently given the choice either to receive an electric shock and continue, or to avoid the shock and terminate the task. Only the Full-Acceptance strategy (that included experiential exercises and a metaphor) had a significant effect on task tolerance as measured by an increase in the number of shocks delivered post-intervention relative to baseline. In addition, the participants in both of the acceptance conditions showed lower levels of believability in that they were more likely to continue with the task even when reporting more pain. The results support the prediction that acceptance-based interventions work by undermining the behavioural-control functions of pain-related thoughts and feelings, and call for a systematic analysis of how metaphors and exercises work in analogue research.     

Modeling ratings of in-vehicle alerts to pedestrian by leveraging field operational tests data in a controlled laboratory study

We show how to leverage expensive field operational tests (FOT) data in a controlled laboratory study when defining an in-vehicle algorithm that alerts drivers to pedestrians. We used an empirical approach that quantifies the relative level with which drivers are likely to accept alerts to pedestrians. The approach was used in two studies to investigate a range of contextual factors known to influence driver ratings of alerts to pedestrians issued by a driver-assistance system. Regression analysis shows that four factors consisting of combinations of pedestrian location and motion relative to the road ahead of the vehicle explain 85% of the variability in drivers’ ratings of alerts. Adding two factors related to the uncertainty of the pedestrians’ future path improves the model slightly. These findings suggest that drivers’ assessment of the danger associated with pedestrians derives largely from the possibility that they might move into the vehicle’s path, even when the vehicle is not on a collision course with the pedestrians. The less probable such an event seems, the less accepted an alert will be. Time to arrival (TTA) improved the regression model only when restricted to pedestrians in clear need of an alert, but was also found to have an effect in alert timing. This finding suggests that four contextual factors largely define the perceptual cues that drivers use to rate alerts to pedestrians.     

Invariance and Scientific Representation

This paper argues for an invariantist view of scientific representation. First, it introduces the deflationary view that sees models in science as no different in essence from symbolic vehicles, which are derivative and adopted pragmatically, as a matter of convention. After analyzing this deflationary view and pointing out its shortcomings, it argues that representations play at least two radically different roles: one purely symbolic and therefore conventional, and the other epistemic. Finally, it argues that although it is correct to say that all particular external vehicles are introduced via some conventions, they get their jobs done because they are invariant with respect to particular conventions.     

Driver distraction in long-haul truck drivers

Research on driver distraction has typically been conducted by means of epidemiology or experimental testing. The study presented here uses a naturalistic approach, where real-world driving data were collected from truck drivers as they worked their normal delivery runs. Crash, near-crash, and crash-relevant conflict data from 41 long-haul truck drivers, driving approximately 140,000 miles, were examined. Of the 2737 crashes, near-crashes, and crash-relevant conflicts (collectively termed “critical incidents”) that were recorded, 178 were attributed to “driver distraction”. The 178 distraction-related critical incidents were analyzed and 34 unique distraction types were identified. Results showed that a small number of long-haul drivers were involved in a disproportionate number of distraction-related critical incidents. For example, two of the drivers accounted for 43 of the 178 distraction incidents. Important insight was also gained into the relative safety impacts of different distracting agents and behaviors. The frequency and duration of a task, along with the visual demand associated with performing the task, were found to contribute in combination to the prevalence of critical incidents. Finally, it was found that simply because a task does not necessarily require visual attention does not mean that long-haul drivers will not look (sometimes often) away from the roadway. However, it is also clear that visually demanding tasks carry the highest degree of risk, relative to other categories of tasks.     

Posttraumatic stress disorder and psychosocial functioning within two samples of MVA survivors

To examine criterion F variables of PTSD, the psychosocial functioning of two samples of motor vehicle accident (MVA) survivors was investigated. Within each sample, comparisons between MVA survivors with and without PTSD were conducted on four psychosocial functioning indices at three time points. In addition, the relationships between specific PTSD symptom clusters and psychosocial functioning indices were examined. The study revealed that, in general, MVA survivors with PTSD evidenced poorer psychosocial functioning than did survivors without PTSD. The emotional numbing symptoms of PTSD emerged as the most consistent predictors of the psychosocial functioning indices. The implications of these findings to the comprehensive treatment of PTSD are discussed.     

Two studies of psychiatric morbidity among motor vehicle accident survivors 1 year after the crash

We assessed the psychiatric co-morbidity associated with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (1-2 years) secondary to personal injury motor vehicle accidents (MVAs) in two studies. In Study 1, we compared the results of SCID assessments for 75 treatment-seeking MVA survivors (51 with PTSD and 24 with symptoms but no PTSD). In Study 2, we compared similar results among 132 MVA survivors who had been followed prospectively for 12+ months after their accidents (19 with PTSD, 32 who had PTSD but who had remitted, and 81 who never met criteria for PTSD). We found comparable levels of current co-morbid major depression (53%), any mood disorder (62-68%), generalized anxiety disorder (26%) and any anxiety disorder (42%) for both groups of participants with chronic PTSD. These rates of co-morbidity were higher than those found in non-PTSD comparison groups with similar MVA histories.     

A structural equation modeling approach for the acceptance of driverless automated shuttles based on constructs from the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology and the Diffusion of Innovation Theory

The present study investigated the attitudes and acceptance of automated shuttles in public transport among 340 individuals physically experiencing the automated shuttle ‘Emily’ from Easymile in a mixed traffic environment on the semi-public EUREF (Europäisches Energieforum) campus in Berlin. Automated vehicle acceptance was modelled as a function of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) constructs performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions, the Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DIT) constructs compatibility and trialability, as well as trust and automated shuttle sharing. The results show that after adding the DIT constructs, automated shuttle sharing, and trust to the model, the effect of performance expectancy on behavioural intention was no longer significant. Instead, compatibility with current travel was the strongest predictor of behavioural intention to use automated shuttles. It was further found that individuals who are willing to share rides in an automated shuttle with fellow travelers (i.e., automated shuttle sharing) and who trust automated shuttles (i.e., trust) are more likely to intend to use automated shuttles (i.e., behavioural intention). The highest mean rating was obtained for believing that automated shuttles are easy to use, while the lowest mean rating was obtained for feeling safe inside the automated shuttle without any type of supervision. The analysis revealed a preference for the supervision of the automated shuttle via an external control room to the supervision by a human steward onboard. We recommend future research to investigate the hypothesis that compatibility could serve as an even stronger predictor of the behavioural intention to use automated shuttles in public transport than performance expectancy.     

An observational study on the risk behaviors of electric bicycle riders performing meal delivery at urban intersections in China

Along with the increase of online catering, the number of accidents involved meal delivery riders increases dramatically in China, and their riding behavior might contribute to fatal accidents. We conducted a field observation study to investigate the risk behavior characteristics of meal delivery couriers riding electric bicycles at urban intersections in China. We selected 4 typical signalized urban intersections in Beijing, and video recorded traffic behaviors of meal delivery riders for eight hours. A total of 1891 couriers crossing intersections on electric bicycles were observed, categorized, and analyzed. The results showed that red-light-running and riding-on-the-motor-lane were the most frequent risky traffic behaviors. The ratios of risk behaviors from delivery couriers were almost all significantly higher than those of normal riders (p < 0.05). There was no significant difference in these risk behaviors for riders across different platforms. The findings provide valuable insights for understanding couriers’ risk behaviors at intersections and make useful suggestions for improving traffic safety.     

Complex and underreported? A study into the prevalence of suicide by motor vehicle in the state of Queensland

While suicide is recognised as one of the leading causes of death in Australia, it is often presumed that fatal road crashes are primarily accidental in nature. However, international research has indicated that deliberate attempts at self-harm while driving may account for between 1.1% and 7.4% of road crashes. Despite the personal and financial costs associated with such events, few studies have examined the extent of motor vehicle suicides (MVS) or the circumstances surrounding such incidents in Australia. Given this, the current study reviewed coronial, police and toxicology findings of 762 motor vehicle fatalities in Queensland (Australia) during the period 2011 to 2015 to determine the frequency of confirmed cases and explore the prevalence (and characteristics) of possible MVS that remain undetected. In total, 22 confirmed cases were identified, and such events shared significant similarities with 14 possible events, including evidence of recent emotional upset, adversity and mental health diagnoses. In contrast, differences between the groups were limited to confirmed cases being more likely to involve males and contain a suicide note or evidence of past suicidality, while possible cases were more likely to involve a multiple vehicle impact with a truck. Importantly, crucial information regarding the deceased’s psychological state and life circumstances (e.g., psychological autopsy) was not reported in many cases. Corresponding qualitative analysis of the coroners final determination (between the two groups) revealed the occurrence of the word suicide to occur seven times (31.8%) among confirmed cases and five times (35.7%) for possible casers. Furthermore, the coroners final determination of intent to suicide was open or undetermined in six of the possible cases (43%), which further suggests a reluctance (or procedural uncertainty) to categorically identify MVS. The paper further reviews the main findings, illuminates core challenges associated with identifying MVS and proposes a need for future investigations to incorporate a more standardised and evidence-based approach in order to effectively identify such events.