生态心理学——心理学研究模式的转向

生态心理学是西方心理学的一种新取向,它在方法论上倡导将交互作用原则作为主要研究原则,具体来说,就是主张实际生活环境的研究原则、多元方法选择原则、多元交互解释原则,这些原则带来了心理学研究模式的转向：从探讨思辨中或实验室中的心理向探讨真实环境中的心理转变;从人的心理内部机制的探求转向对人和环境互动关系的探求;从对理论模型的追问到对理论背景与实验设计之间匹配的关注;从分析性思维模式为主转向综合性思维模式。     

Isolating observer-based reference directions in human spatial memory: head, body, and the self-to-array axis

Several lines of research have suggested the importance of egocentric reference systems for determining how the spatial properties of one's environment are mentally organized. Yet relatively little is known about the bases for egocentric reference systems in human spatial memory. In three experiments, we examine the relative importance of observer-based reference directions in human memory by controlling the orientation of head and body during acquisition. Experiment 1 suggests that spatial memory is organized by a head-aligned reference direction; however, Experiment 2 shows that a body-aligned reference direction can be more influential than a head-aligned direction when the axis defined by the relative positions of the observer and the learned environment (the "self-to-array" axis) is properly controlled. A third experiment shows that the self-to-array axis is distinct from - and can dominate - retina, head, and body-based egocentric reference systems.     

Asymmetric learning transfer between imagined viewer- and object-rotations: Evidence of a hierarchical organization of spatial reference frames

Neural resources subserving spatial processing in either egocentric or allocentric reference frames are, at least partly, dissociated. However, it is unclear whether these two types of representations are independent or whether they interact. We investigated this question using a learning transfer paradigm. The experiment and material were designed so that they could be used in a clinical setting. Here, we tested healthy subjects in an imagined viewer-rotation task and an imagined object-rotation task. The order of the tasks was counterbalanced across subjects. The results showed that subjects who did the viewer-rotation task first had fewer errors and shorter latencies of response in the object-rotation task, whereas subjects who did the object-rotation task first had little if any advantage in the viewer-rotation task. In other words, the results revealed an asymmetric learning transfer between tasks, which suggests that spatial representations are hierarchically organized. Specifically, the results indicate that the viewer-rotation task engaged allocentric representations and egocentric representations, whereas the object-rotation task engaged only egocentric representations.     

Embodied and disembodied cognition: Spatial perspective-taking

Although people can take spatial perspectives different from their own, it is widely assumed that egocentric perspectives are natural and have primacy. Two studies asked respondents to describe the spatial relations between two objects on a table in photographed scenes; in some versions, a person sitting behind the objects was either looking at or reaching for one of the objects. The mere presence of another person in a position to act on the objects induced a good proportion of respondents to describe the spatial relations from that person’s point of view (Experiment 1). When the query about the spatial relations was phrased in terms of action, more respondents took the other’s perspective than their own (Experiment 2). The implication of action elicits spontaneous spatial perspective-taking, seemingly in the service of understanding the other’s actions.     

College Students’ Affective Distress: The Role of Expectation Discrepancies and Communication

The discrepancy between college students’ performance and parents’ expectations may be related to college students’ affective distress. Further, the role that parent–college student communication reciprocity may play in the context of these discrepancies has not been examined. As a result, this study examined parent–college student expectation discrepancies and communication reciprocity as predictors of college students’ affective distress (i.e., anger, depression, and anxiety). Results of this study suggest that college student–parent expectation discrepancies, communication reciprocity, and college students’ affective distress (i.e., anger, depression, and anxiety) are interrelated significantly. Further, results from the hierarchical regressions conducted for this study suggest that college students’ perception of their communication reciprocity with their parents may be a more important predictor of college students’ depression and anxiety in the context of the expectation discrepancies examined in this study. These findings underscore the importance of teaching communication skills to college students and their parents as a means of diminishing the deleterious effects of perceiving one another inaccurately.     

Damage to the retrosplenial cortex produces specific impairments in spatial working memory

Mounting evidence indicates that the retrosplenial cortex (RSP) has a critical role in spatial navigation. The goal of the present study was to characterize the specific nature of spatial memory deficits that are observed following damage to RSP. Rats with RSP lesions or sham lesions were first trained in a working memory task using an 8-arm radial arm maze. Rats were allowed 5 min to visit each arm and retrieve food pellets and a 5-s delay was imposed between arm choices. Consistent with previous research, rats with RSP damage committed more errors than controls. In particular, RSP-lesioned rats committed more errors of omission (failing to visit an arm of the maze), but there were no lesion effects on errors of commission (revisiting an arm). Neither group of rats exhibited a turn bias (i.e., always turning a certain direction when choosing an arm). At the end of the training phase of the experiment, both groups had reached asymptote and committed very few errors. In the subsequent test phase, a longer delay (30-s) was imposed during some sessions. Both control and RSP-lesioned rats continued to make few errors during sessions with the standard 5-s delay, but RSP-lesioned rats were impaired at the 30-s delay and committed more errors of commission, consistent with an increase in taxing spatial working memory.     

亲社会名声与亲社会行为

亲社会名声是行动者获得的亲社会特质声誉, 它有益于行动者的社会适应。行动者首先通过亲社会行为建立亲社会名声, 亲社会名声又通过间接互惠和同伴选择过程对行动者产生外在激励作用, 通过自我概念对行动者产生内在激励作用, 进而促进其亲社会行为。行动者的贫富水平、亲社会行为的公开性、自我获益和宣传方式影响其亲社会名声的获得。未来研究应关注亲社会行为与亲社会名声之间的相互促进过程, 探索行动者亲社会行为的代价与获益如何交互影响其亲社会名声; 行动者的社会阶层如何通过对人们预期的影响而调节行动者的亲社会名声; 亲社会名声促进亲社会行为的内在机制与边界条件。     

计算式互惠机制探讨——认知和动机的物种比较

与灵长类动物相比, 人类社会中存在广泛的互惠行为, 这种广泛性表现为人类具有独特的计算式互惠。本文从计算式互惠的认知和动机机制两方面对人类儿童和灵长类动物进行比较, 以期从近因机制的角度为人类互惠行为的复杂性提供解释依据。未来研究需要重视从个体发展和个体差异的视角探寻认知和动机因素对计算式互惠的影响, 并注重从互动双方各自的角度对各影响因素进行区别和分析, 从而更全面地提供有关人类互惠近因机制的证据。     

Personality,reciprocity, and strength of conflict resolution strategy

The present field study investigates how an individual’s interpersonal conflict resolution behavior is affected by the individual’s personality (assessed by the Big 5) and a situational factor (the other party’s conflict behavior), as well as how the two factors interact. A hierarchical regression analysis based on 256 student–roommate/friend dyads shows that both factors are important. Extraversion and Agreeableness were significantly related to most conflict strategies used by students. The results show that interactions between the parties in conflict situations are strongly governed by the norm of reciprocity. Finally, we found some empirical support for the interaction effect between personality and situation, suggesting that an individual’s conflict behavior is more complex than what the dispositional or the situational view may suggest.     

An experimental test of a game‐theoretical model of reciprocity

In this contribution the norm of reciprocity is defined as a basic internal motivation. Using formal tools of game theory, a model of social utility function is presented. The reciprocity model predicts that social actors should reciprocate costs and benefits they receive, even when there are costs in conforming to the norm. Hypotheses about actors' behavior, expectations and evaluations are derived from the model. The hypotheses were tested in an experimental situation, the reciprocity game, consisting of a prisoner's dilemma game (PD) followed by a dictator game (DG). The sample was composed of 74 Italian undergraduate students. In line with the model's predictions, the experimental results showed that participants reciprocate the behavior of the opponent in the PD. In the DG, if the opponent cooperated, participants gave back an almost equal share, whereas if the opponent defected, participants gave a minimal amount. These reciprocity effects are modulated by individual differences in the concern for reciprocity. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.