Speed reductions and judgments of travel time loss: Biases and debiasing

Priority decisions concerning maintenance or reconstruction of roads are made with the aim of road improvements with as little traffic disturbance and time loss as possible. However, it cannot be avoided that speed will be reduced and travel time increased during the time of construction. The present study shows how intuitive judgments of travel time losses are biased in a way similar to the times saving bias (Svenson, 2008), but not perfectly corresponding to that bias. This means that when speed is decreased from a slow speed <50 km/h, the time loss is underestimated and when speed is decreased from a high speed >80 km/h it is overestimated. Also, drivers, politicians and policy makers who do not make exact calculations are likely victims of the time loss bias. The time loss bias was weakened but not eliminated by a debiasing instruction including mathematical computations of travel times. When driving speed restrictions are implemented, in particular on fast motorways, it is necessary to consider and counteract the time loss bias and inform the public. This can be done, for example, in communications about travel time facts, by information in driver training and by mounting temporary road signs informing about the average travel time prolongation due to a road work.     

Nonverbal communication during the learner lesson with a professional driving instructor: A novel investigation

BackgroundFundamental for the development of the driving and road use skills of the young driver is learning to drive through driving instruction and, in graduated driver licensing programs such as in Australia, driving supervision. In Queensland young drivers are required to log a minimum of 100 h supervised practice, with recent research revealing that parents provide most of this supervision. Queensland also offers young drivers a 10-h 3-for-1 bonus for professional driving instruction, such that one hour of professional instruction can be logged as three hours of practice, to a maximum of 30 logbook hours. Recent research efforts have begun to provide insight into the nature of the verbal instruction of both parents and professional instructors, and into the nonverbal communication between parents and learners. However nothing is known regarding the nonverbal communication between professional instructors and learners.MethodTen learner lessons (five male learners) with four professional instructors (four males) were captured via GoPro cameras. The nonverbal communication during the first, middle, and last 10 min of each lesson was coded as being posture and body orientation, gestures, facial expressions, proximity, humour, and eye contact, within the context of the accompanying verbal communication according to the value of (a) eager, or (b) cautious; the valence of (a) neutral, (b) positive, or (c) negative; and the purpose of (a) rapport, or (b) communication.ResultsOverall, posture and body orientation was the most common mechanism of nonverbal communication, while facial expressions and proximity were the least common mechanisms of nonverbal communication. In general the beginning, the middle, and the end of the lessons were characterised by a plethora of neutral, cautious interactions, and positive, eager interactions. However it is noteworthy that the rates at which learners and instructors engaged in these behaviours were found to change across the lesson. Specifically learners actively communication nonverbally through mechanisms such as eye contact, facial expressions and humour, while instructors appeared to manage building rapport and communicating safe vehicle and road use through nonverbal communication such as gestures, facial expressions and posture and body orientation, summarised in a model comprising a continuum of instruction.DiscussionWhile nonverbal communication is fundamental for effective verbal communication, and on occasion can replace verbal communication, and as such the professional – and the parental – driving lesson should optimise the use of nonverbal communication, at this time the optimal nature of nonverbal communication remains unknown. In addition, optimal verbal and nonverbal communication specifically suited to the driving context which involves a dynamic environment outside the vehicle, and at times a dynamic environment inside the vehicle, remains yet to be identified. The research findings provide unique insight into the nature of the nonverbal communication used by both learner drivers and professional driving instructors, in addition to the continuum of instruction model. As such, the findings provide a solid foundation for future research into, and guidance regarding, optimising the learner driving lesson.     

Using simulation to assess the ability of youth to safely operate tractors

BackgroundOperating farm tractors is dangerous for children. Recent studies document mismatches between children and physical requirements for operating tractors. The role of cognition has not been studied, because such research conducted in real-life situations places youth at risk. The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and psychometric properties of a simulated virtual tractor environment to examine how children’s age and development impacts safe tractor operations.MethodsFifty-five male youth ages 10–17 living/working on farms with experience driving tractors tested the virtual environment and simulation modules. Six adult male farmers were recruited as a reference group to compare youth performance with adults.ResultsThe simulation had adequate face validity with realism scores reported between “somewhat” and “quite” realistic. Internal reliability of the simulation was excellent, as demonstrated by highly significant intraclass correlations for key indicators of performance (speeds and hazard clearances). While there was some evidence for construct validity, as indicated by trends in performance across the age groups, findings were mixed.ConclusionStudy findings support using simulation for assessing the abilities of children to safely operate tractors.     

Compensating for failed attention while driving

While operating a motor vehicle, drivers must pay attention to other moving vehicles and the roadside environment in order to detect and process critical information related to the driving task. Using a driving simulator, this study investigated the effects of an unexpected event on driver performance in environments of more or less clutter and under situations of high attentional load. Attentional load was manipulated by varying the number of neighboring vehicles participants tracked for lane changes. After baseline-driving behavior was established, the unexpected event occurred: a pedestrian ran into the driver’s path. Tracking-accuracy, brake initiation, swerving, and verbal report of the unexpected pedestrian were used to assess driver performance. All participants verbally reported noticing the pedestrian. However, analyses of driving behavior revealed differences in the reactions to the pedestrian: drivers braked faster and had significantly less deviation in their steering heading with a lower attentional load, and participants in low clutter environments had a larger overall change in velocity. This research advances the understanding of how drivers allocate attention between various stimuli and the trade-offs between a driver’s focus on an assigned task and external objects within the roadway environment. Moreover, the results of this research lend insight into how to construct roadway environments that encourage driver attention toward the most immediate and relevant information to reduce both vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-pedestrian interactions.     

Opposite effects of feedback contingency on the process of risky decisions-making

The main aim of this study was to look into the effect of feedback contingency on decision making in complex risky situations, using a driving context. Participants had to decide braking or not in a set of risky traffic situations. After the response, a negative non-contingent or contingent feedback was used. The results highlight the importance of feedback contingency upon safer decision making in risky contexts, as they showed how a contingent feedback led to faster and safer responses than a control group without any feedback; whereas a non-contingent one gives rise to slower responses and, more importantly, an enhanced risk-taking behavior that could be the cause of undesirable effects on road safety. The feedback effect was even more evident in the appearance of an opposite response bias as a function of contingency and enhanced by learning. These results accord with the theoretical accounts based upon the feedback influence on the threshold level of decision making. Moreover, the effects of feedback may be explained by new proposals focusing on the importance of attentional factors as well as of the mental models people build to react in complex risky scenarios, as a product of feedback and learning. Finally, this research may increase our understanding of the role of feedback in the process of learning safer behavior in complex risky situations.     

Effects of directional auditory and visual warnings at intersections on reaction times and speed reduction times

Intersection collision warning systems (ICWSs) have an important impact on driving safety because making the potential collision at intersection predictable, allow reducing the probability and severity of accidents. Among the several types of alarms to alert the driver of an imminent collision, those most used concerning the auditory and the visual stimulus. However, it is unclear whether is more effective an audio or a visual warning. In addition, no study compared the effects on drivers’ behavior induced by an acoustic and a visual directional warning. The main objective of the present study was to assess, in response to a potential conflict event at the intersections, the effects of directional auditory and visual warnings on driving performance.A driving simulator experiment was carried out to collect drivers’ behavior in response to a vehicle that failed to stop at the intersection. The parameters reaction time and speed reduction time were used for the evaluation of the effects on driving performance. These duration variables were modeled following the survival analysis, by the use of the accelerated failure time duration model with a Weibull distribution.Results showed that when the directional warning system (auditory or visual) was present, the drivers were able to detect earlier the violator vehicle. This effect led to a more comfortable braking maneuver and, thus, less possibilities of an unexpected maneuver for the following vehicle, avoiding the car – following collisions. The effectiveness of ICWSs was more evident for the directional auditory speech message; for this condition, in fact, the lower reaction time and the longer speed reduction time were obtained.The outcomes of the present study provide useful suggestions about the most effective collision warning systems that the automotive industry should develop and equip on vehicles.     

A Cross-Sectional Examination of International Competency Standards

The evaluation of competency in the field of psychology has gained international attention in recent years. Focusing on international competencies can promote high standards of care and identify common values of the profession. However, there is little research regarding international perceptions of competency. Examining ethics codes from different countries can highlight international standards of competent practice, as ethics codes outline professional expectations of the field. The current study compared the ethics standards found in 47 codes of ethics representing 51 countries. Seventeen competency standards emerged after ethics codes were analyzed. Implications for the international practice of psychology are discussed.     

Eyes on the prize: The longitudinal benefits of goal focus on progress toward a weight loss goal

Past research suggests that focusing on what has not yet been accomplished (goal focus) signals a lack of progress towards one's high commitment goals and inspires greater motivation than does focusing on what has already been accomplished (accomplishment focus). The present investigation extends this research to a longitudinal, important domain by exploring the consequences of focusing on one's goals versus accomplishments when pursuing a weight loss goal. Participants were tracked over the course of a 12-week weight loss program that utilized weekly group discussions and a companion website to direct participants' focus toward their end weight loss goal or toward what they had already achieved. Goal-focused participants reported higher levels of commitment to their goal and, ultimately, lost more weight than did accomplishment-focused and no focus control participants. Accomplishment-focused participants did not differ from controls on any measure.     

The intention to commit driving violations – A qualitative study

This study was designed to carry out an in-depth exploration of an extended version of the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Fifty licensed drivers took part in the study and each one was given three different driving scenarios; speeding in an urban area, dangerous overtaking and speeding on a major road. The results indicated that drivers usually find speeding acceptable although this was also related to a context, since speeding on a major road was more acceptable than on a minor one. The immediate response to the question about consequences of the act varied and depended on the perception of the situation. In a serious situation the response was purely affective and immediate whereas in a low risk situation it was more considered. The response to the question about subjective norm was sometimes difficult to answer or misunderstood which throws some light on its weak association with intention. Driving skills were explored in some detail together with its possible link to perceived behavioural control. In general those participants who believed themselves to be superior to others, expressed high degrees of control. The study also found that a low degree of perceived behavioural control (external or internal) could be used as a form of justification for carrying out an act although this only applied to a situation which they perceived as low risk. In a high-risk situation they always tried to maintain their own control. Habit, or rather past behaviour, influenced future behaviour when the experience had been positive. The police, or feelings of regret, could break this pattern. The implications of these findings in relation to theoretical and practical issues are discussed.