Anger In Or Out,Which Is Healthier? An Attempt To Reconcile Inconsistent Findings

Abstract

A survey of the literature concerning the relationship between style of anger expression and health disorders does not lead to a clear-cut conclusion. Some studies suggest that the outward expression of anger (anger-out) contributes to health problems of various types, while others present evidence suggesting that it is the suppression of anger (anger-in) which contributes to health problems. The present study examined three conceivable explanations for the contradictory evidence produced in this research area: (1) different aspects of anger expression are differentially related to the individual's health; (2) the pattern of anger expression is related differentially to health disorders of different types; (3) the degree of matching between the individual's style of anger expression and social desirability accounts for the inconsistency in the empirical findings. A sample of 134 men underwent comprehensive medical examinations and also filled in several anger expression questionnaires. The results supported the first hypothesis, namely that intensity of anger expression was negatively correlated with ill health while frequency of anger expression was positively correlated with ill health. No support was found for the hypothesis that anger expression relates differentially to health disorders of different types. However, the matching hypothesis was confirmed in part. It was found that individuals low on both intensity of anger expression and social desirability reported the highest frequency of health problems. The theoretical significance of these findings and their practical implications are discussed.     

The unit size effect of indulgent food: How eating smaller sized items signals impulsivity and makes consumers eat less

In deciding how much to eat, people are influenced by environmental cues. The unit size of food (i.e. the number of units in which a given amount of food is divided) provides such a cue. Previous research showed that given equal caloric and volumetric content, smaller units of food tend to reduce food consumption. We propose that the unit size of food impacts intake as it influences perceptions of impulsiveness and appropriateness. Our analysis is based on three experimental studies, all employing between subject designs. When consuming similar amounts of chocolates in studies 1 (n?=?118) and 2 (n?=?124), both studies show that consumption of five small units of chocolates is considered to be more impulsive, excessive and less appropriate than consuming one large unit of chocolate. Results of a third study (n?=?165) indicate that about 23% less chocolate is eaten when it is presented in small unit size vs. a large unit size and this effect is mediated by perceptions of impulsivity. All three studies suggest that perceptions of impulsivity and excess eating while eating several smaller units of food compared to one large unit might be a key factor explaining consumption effects in earlier studies on this bias.     

Predicting Antenatal Class Attendance: Attitudes Of Self And Others

Abstract

Attendance at antenatal classes has been found to improve birth outcomes, yet many women do not attend. This study investigates the extent to which we can predict attendance and whether women's expectations of classes are confirmed by their subsequent experiences. Intention to attend was the most predictive variable in the 529 primigravidas women studied. It was best predicted by women's general attitudes about coping and the value of attendance, rather than by specific expectations of classes. Women's perceptions of the attitudes of the baby's father and of the hospital doctor were also important. Although there were demographic differences between attenders and non-attenders, they were less predictive than attitudes. These findings are consistent with the Theory of Reasoned Action. Women's experiences of classes were much more positive than their expectations. Giving this information to women and their partners may change their attitudes and, hence, attendance.     

Belief-level markers of physical activity among young adult couples: Comparisons across couples without children and new parents

The health benefits of regular moderate–vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) are well established, yet young adults, particularly parents, often show declines in MVPA and may represent a critical population for intervention. Theory-based correlates used to guide future interventions are scant in this population. The purpose of this study was to examine theory of planned behaviour (TPB) belief-level constructs as correlates of directly assessed MVPA across cohorts of couples without children and with their first child over the initial 12?months. Participants were 238 adults (102 not expecting a child, 136 expecting first child) who completed baseline demographics, belief measures of the TPB and seven-day accelerometry, followed by assessments at 6 and 12 months. Results showed select medium-sized belief-PA correlations with sex and cohort interactions. Overall, women had larger affect-based behavioural belief associations with MVPA than men (e.g. PA relieves stress), and among new parents, mothers showed larger associations with control over MVPA than fathers. Mothers also had larger associations between control beliefs and MVPA compared to women without children (e.g. domestic duties, bad weather). Extremely high means and low variability on the behavioural beliefs show limited room for possible changes in intervention while control beliefs had low means suggesting room for change. Interventions targeting control among new mothers may be paramount for increasing MVPA, yet the TPB yielded less insight into the targets for promoting MVPA among young men.     

Interpreting coronary-prone behaviour: Relationships among type a behaviour,hopelessness, anger management and social contact

Abstract

Two approaches to interpreting relationships among psychosocial risk factors for coronary heart disease are contrasted: the profile approach which focuses on predictive validity and confounding; and the theoretical approach which emphasises internal validity. These approaches are explored by applying them to a set of correlations found among Type A behaviour, hopelessness, anger management and social contact in a female sample. Type A behaviour was positively correlated with hopelessness and with anger expression, whilst anger management was related to the availability of social contact. The relationships between Type A, anger expression and hopelessness also appeared to be moderated by degree of social contact. These results are interpreted from the profile perspective and from that of Price's cognitive social learning theory. The relative merits of the two approaches are considered and a case is made for encouraging more theoretically based research on coronary-prone behaviour.     

Elucidating satisfaction with physical activity: An examination of the day-to-day associations between experiences with physical activity and satisfaction during physical activity initiation

Satisfaction with physical activity is known to be an important factor in physical activity maintenance, but the factors that influence satisfaction are not well understood. The purpose of this study was to elucidate how ongoing experiences with recently initiated physical activity are associated with satisfaction. Participants (n?=?116) included insufficiently active volunteers who initiated a self-directed physical activity regimen and completed daily diaries about their experiences for 28?days. We used multilevel models to examine the associations between experiences with physical activity and satisfaction. Significant between-person effects demonstrated that people reporting higher average levels of positive experiences and lower levels of thinking about the negative aspects of exercise were more likely to report higher levels of satisfaction (ps?<?.05). Positive experiences and perceived progress toward goals had significant within-person effects (ps?<?.01), suggesting that day-to-day fluctuations in these experiences were associated with changes in satisfaction. These findings elucidate a process through which people may determine their satisfaction with physical activity.     

Closing the intention–behaviour gap for sunscreen use and sun protection behaviours

Objective

Two studies were conducted with the aim of closing the intention–behaviour gap for sunscreen use and sun protection behaviours by examining the influence of self-regulatory capacity on the prediction of sunscreen use (Study 1) and self-regulatory capacity and habit on sun protection behaviours (Study 2).

Design

Studies were conducted online. Participants completed questionnaires and cognitive measures and then reported behaviour one week later.

Main Outcome Measures

Questionnaires measuring intention and cognitive tasks measuring self-regulatory capacity were administered to 209 university students. One week later, participants reported behaviour. In Study 2, questionnaires measuring intentions, and habit and cognitive tasks measuring self-regulatory capacity were administered to 178 university students who reported behaviour one week later.

Results

Intention accounted for 7.1% of variance in sunscreen use, no measures of self-regulation accounted for variance in behaviour or moderated the intention–behaviour gap (Study 1). Intention, self-regulatory capacity and habit accounted for 56.1% of variance in sun protection behaviours (Study 2). Intention, self-regulatory ability and habit predicted behaviour, while habit moderated the intention–behaviour gap.

Conclusion

Interventions aimed at increasing sun protection behaviours should take into account level of intention, self-regulatory capacity and habit. Individuals may benefit from habit formation strategies and self-regulation training.     

Measuring the impact on relatives of caring for people with Alzheimer's disease: Quality of life,burden and well-being

Abstract

This study compared key correlates of caregiver stress in 50 Alzheimer's disease patients and their primary caregivers. in relation to three outcome measures - perceived burden, psychological well-being, and quality of life (QoL). These were evaluated using the Zarit Burden Interview. General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-30), and Schedule for the Evaluation of Individual QoL (SEIQoL-DW) respectively. Informal social support was evaluated on Vaux's Social Support Appraisal Scale. Patients' cognitive. functional, and behavioural status were rated on Mini-Mental State Examination, Blessed-Roth Dementia Scale. and Baumgarten Dementia Behaviour Disturbance Scale respectively. Standardised multiple regression analysis was used to compare the outcome measures. In this model burden was highly related to behaviour disturbance. and also to social support (adjusted R² = 0.45). Well-being was significantly related to behaviour disturbance, and also to functional status (adjusted R² = 0.40). With regard to QoL the model performed poorly as most of the variance in QoL was not accounted for by the model (adjusted R² = 0.14). These findings highlight differences in factors determining caregiver QoL. burden and well-being.     

Applying multiple models to predict clinicians’ behavioural intention and objective behaviour when managing children's teeth

This study used multiple theoretical approaches simultaneously to predict an objectively measured clinical behaviour. The six theoretical approaches were: The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), Common Sense Self-Regulation Model (CS-SRM), Operant Learning Theory (OLT), Action Planning (AP) and the Precaution Adoption Process (PAP), with knowledge as an additional predictor. Data on variables from these models were collected by postal survey. Data on the outcome behaviour, the evidence-based practice of placing fissure sealants, was collected from clinical records. Participants were 133 dentists (64% male) in Scotland. Variables found to predict the behaviour were: intention, attitude, perceived behavioural control, risk perception, outcome expectancies, self efficacy, habit, anticipated consequences, experienced consequences and action planning. The TPB, SCT, AP, OLT and PAP significantly predicted behaviour but the CS-SRM did not. A combined (Stepwise) regression model included only intention and action planning. Post hoc analyses showed action planning mediated effect of intention on behaviour. Taking a theory-based approach creates a replicable methodology for identifying factors predictive of clinical behaviour and for the design and choice of interventions to modify practice as new evidence emerges, increasing current options for improving health outcomes through influencing the implementation of best practice.     

Impact of alcohol on sexual decision making: Intentions to have unprotected sex

The impact of alcohol on intentions to have sex with a new partner and the antecedents of intentions were investigated in three studies (N = 139, 60, and 218, respectively). In all three studies, respondents were intoxicated or not intoxicated with alcohol and completed measures based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour in relation to having sex whilst imagining him- or her-self in the scenario. The scenario described unprotected sex between two individuals not in an existing relationship. Consistently across studies, intoxication had a significant effect on intentions for men but not for women. Also consistently across studies, affective attitudes were significantly stronger determinants of intentions for women than for men. Alcohol intoxication consistently moderated the impact of affective attitudes on intentions in women but not men, with greater intoxication associated with stronger impacts (Studies 1, 2, and 3). Implications for understanding the impacts of alcohol intoxication on sexual decision making in men and women are discussed.