Constraining bridges between levels of analysis: A computational justification for locally Bayesian learning

Different levels of analysis provide different insights into behavior: computational-level analyses determine the problem an organism must solve and algorithmic-level analyses determine the mechanisms that drive behavior. However, many attempts to model behavior are pitched at a single level of analysis. Research into human and animal learning provides a prime example, with some researchers using computational-level models to understand the sensitivity organisms display to environmental statistics but other researchers using algorithmic-level models to understand organisms’ trial order effects, including effects of primacy and recency. Recently, attempts have been made to bridge these two levels of analysis. Locally Bayesian Learning (LBL) creates a bridge by taking a view inspired by evolutionary psychology: Our minds are composed of modules that are each individually Bayesian but communicate with restricted messages. A different inspiration comes from computer science and statistics: Our brains are implementing the algorithms developed for approximating complex probability distributions. We show that these different inspirations for how to bridge levels of analysis are not necessarily in conflict by developing a computational justification for LBL. We demonstrate that a scheme that maximizes computational fidelity while using a restricted factorized representation produces the trial order effects that motivated the development of LBL. This scheme uses the same modular motivation as LBL, passing messages about the attended cues between modules, but does not use the rapid shifts of attention considered key for the LBL approximation. This work illustrates a new way of tying together psychological and computational constraints.     

Modelling pedestrian crossing behaviour in urban roads: A latent variable approach

As pedestrians are the most exposed and vulnerable road users to traffic accidents, urban planners frequently propose alternatives to improve their safety. However, some solutions, such as pedestrian bridges and crosswalks at signalized intersections, usually imply longer walking distances compared to the direct crossing alternative which, in its turn, involves a higher risk.In this article, a hybrid framework is proposed to analyse the pedestrians’ choice on how to cross an urban road where three crossing options are available: crossing directly, crossing by using a pedestrian bridge or using a crosswalk at a signalized intersection. The decision process is modelled as a discrete choice model incorporating latent variables to consider perceptions and psychological factors, using stated preference data coming from a survey applied in Bogotá, Colombia.Results show that the latent variables security/safety and attractiveness of each crossing alternative are relevant to understand the pedestrian crossing behaviour. These latent variables are strongly determined by socioeconomic characteristics of the individual (age, gender, level of study) and conditioned by the circumstances of the trip (main mode of transport, walking or not with children). It was found that a longer walking distance to a pedestrian bridge or a signalized crosswalk increases the probability of direct crossing, having a more relevant effect in the case of the pedestrian bridge.     

工作室教学模式的探讨——以视觉传达专业为例

随着时代的发展以理论灌输的传统教学模式得到挑战，新型的工作室教学模式得到广泛应用。这种新型的教学模式具有一定的特点以及结构，正是这种新型的教育模式促进着教育朝着一个新的开端发展。     

Teaching and Doing Philosophy of Education: The Question of Style

This paper explores the practice of teaching philosophy, and particularly philosophy of education, in a higher education context. Starting from a critical discussion of some of the literature on teaching and learning in higher education, I introduce the notions of philosophical style and temperament and suggest that exploring these notions, the problems they raise, and their implications for issues to do with our own identity as philosophers and as teachers, can enrich our understanding of the practice of teaching philosophy in higher education and our ability to reflect on and possibly improve our own teaching practice.     

Can Psychology Ethics Effectively Be Integrated into Introductory Psychology?

This study evaluated the integration of psychology ethics into an introductory psychology course. Students in two general psychology sections were exposed to an infusion of psychology ethics in teaching, research, and clinical practice, whereas students in two sections were exposed to traditional course content. Students completed a pre and post-test assessment including a psychology ethics questionnaire and open-ended responses to three ethics case studies. Students in the ethics group displayed a statistically significant increase in scores on both measures from pre to post-test. However, students in the traditional group showed no improvement in scores.     

Psychophysics without physics: extension of Fechnerian scaling from continuous to discrete and discrete-continuous stimulus spaces

The computation of subjective (Fechnerian) distances from discrimination probabilities involves cumulation of appropriately transformed psychometric increments along smooth arcs (in continuous stimulus spaces) or chains of stimuli (in discrete spaces). In a space where any two stimuli that are each other's points of subjective equality are given identical physical labels, psychometric increments are positive differences ψ(x,y)-ψ(x,x) and ψ(y,x)-ψ(x,x), where x≠y and ψ is the probability of judging two stimuli different. In continuous stimulus spaces the appropriate monotone transformation of these increments (called overall psychometric transformation) is determined uniquely in the vicinity of zero, and its extension to larger values of its argument is immaterial. In discrete stimulus spaces, however, Fechnerian distances critically depend on this extension. We show that if overall psychometric transformation is assumed (A) to be the same for a sufficiently rich class of discrete stimulus spaces, (B) to ensure the validity of the Second Main Theorem of Fechnerian Scaling in this class of spaces, and (C) to agree in the vicinity of zero with one of the possible transformations in continuous spaces, then this transformation can only be identity. This result is generalized to the broad class of “discrete-continuous” stimulus spaces, of which continuous and discrete spaces are proper subclasses.     

A Research Program Testing the Effectiveness of a Preventive Intervention for Couples with a Newborn

Noxious family environments are associated with a wide range of adverse child outcomes. In order to prevent couple and parent–child relationship problems, a number of programs have been developed for couples with newborns. The current paper describes a program of research evaluating the American version of couple CARE for parents of newborns. This version of CCP was administered to low‐income, unmarried couples with a new baby in an uncontrolled demonstration project (Study 1), compared with a waitlist control condition in a randomized controlled trial (Study 2), and evaluated with low‐income parents recruited from urban hospitals in two major metropolitan areas of the United States (Study 3 and Study 4). Despite participant satisfaction with CCP, preventive effects of the program were limited and there was one potential iatrogenic effect. Results were likely impacted by major challenges with recruiting participants and maintaining their engagement in CCP for the duration of the program. We discuss methodological differences between this series of studies and previous trials of prevention programs and make recommendations for improving service delivery to at‐risk new parents. These results have implications for public policies that aim to benefit children and families.     

以同伴教育形式进行医学沟通学教学的探讨

从医学沟通重要性出发,提出以同伴教育的教育方式进行医学沟通教学和实践的建议,认为运用同伴教育没有代沟、平等交流和参与性强的特点,将抽象说教变为具体的言行训练与沟通能力培养,学生容易接受,对提高学生的沟通能力产生较好的效果。     

Interspersing easy math problems among challenging problems: detection of interspersal effects in whole-class applications

Interspersing easy problems among challenging problems has been shown to both increase students’ preference for completing math worksheets and the fluency with which they complete challenging problems. Although early research examining the interspersal procedure in mathematics was conducted with college-age students, there are a growing number of studies utilizing the interspersal procedure in elementary and secondary school settings. A particular concern with existing research however is whether the beneficial effects are maintained across multiple sessions and whether effects generalize when implemented with large groups of students. The current study addressed this concern by administering both control and interspersal math worksheets consisting of instructionally relevant problems to 75 fourth grade students across four sessions. Because students’ instructional levels differed, analyses were conducted separately for students identified as fluent and less fluent based upon student performance on the control worksheet administered during session 1. Dependent measures included digits correct and problems correct as well as students’ responses to four preference questions following each session. Although results differ from previous research in that students completed significantly more digits correct on control worksheets, explanations of these differences are examined and implications are discussed.     

Teaching practices and the promotion of achievement and adjustment in first grade

The effects of teacher practices in promoting student academic achievement, behavioral adjustment, and feelings of competence were investigated in a prospective study of 257 children in 14 first grade classrooms. Using hierarchical linear modeling and regression techniques, observed teaching practices in the fall were explored as predictors of mean levels of student achievement, behavior, and self-perceived competence, as well as the percentage of students who met academic standards as measured in the spring. After controlling for child characteristics at school entry, in classrooms where teachers were observed to offer more instructional and social-emotional support (i.e., attending to students' interest and initiative, providing appropriately challenging learning opportunities, and creating positive social relationships), children on average acquired more math skills, made greater behavioral gains, and had more positive perceptions of their academic abilities. Further, a higher percentage of students in such classrooms met academic standards (two reading, one math). Implications for future research and educational practice are discussed.