外在奖励对内在动机的影响

一直以来,奖励,无论是物质奖励还是精神奖励,都被作为一种重要的激励方式应用在社会生活的各个方面,而在教学活动中,则更是因行为主义的影响而尤为重视奖励的作用。近年来,有越来越多的证据表明以控制行为为目的奖励存在破坏内在动机、阻碍创造力发挥、使得被奖励的活动价值丧失,以及对达成目标不能给出有益信息等负面影响,这些影响已经极大地破坏了学习的积极性。Kohn提出的3C理论或可在指导教育教学实践排除奖励的消极影响。     

The Teacher Belief Q-Sort: A measure of teachers' priorities in relation to disciplinary practices, teaching practices, and beliefs about children

The present study advances a new method for assessing teacher beliefs and priorities. This paper describes the development and psychometric properties of the Teacher Belief Q-Sort (TBQ), an assessment technique that examines teachers' priorities and beliefs about discipline practices, classroom practices, and beliefs about children (see www.socialdevelopmentlab.org. Further, this paper describes the usefulness of this tool by examining differences in beliefs and priorities among four groups of teachers (experienced teachers trained in the Responsive Classroom (RC) Approach, experienced teachers with no such training, pre-service teachers planning on teaching elementary school, and pre-service teachers planning on teaching middle/high school) with the goal of demonstrating the way priorities are sensitive to specialized training and teaching experience. The study establishes the TBQ as a reliable, valid, and useful method. Findings showed that RC teachers hold discipline and teaching practice priorities consistent with training in the RC Approach and that pre-service teachers placed greater priority on spontaneity and collaboration and held more negative views about children's likeability and motivation than in-service teachers. Findings are discussed in terms of the ways in which teacher priorities are sensitive to specialized training and teaching experience and offer an early indicator of integrity of implementation.     

Children's use of imagery in accessing different types of semantic information

Semantic retrieval was examined in second graders under an induced imagery and a control condition. Two types of animal properties, perceptual and functional, were presented to children for verification. Properties were high and low in rated association strength; the size of the property (i.e., large vs small) was also manipulated in the case of perceptual meaning. Results suggest that young children rely on imagery in semantic retrieval; however, second graders are also adept at processing functional as well as perceptual meaning, and at using an abstract memory accessing system. Thus, considerable flexibility is evidenced by subjects in semantic retrieval.     

Change in vocational choice as a function of initial career choice,interests, abilities,and sex

This study examines changes in expressed vocational choices made over an 18-mo period by a sample of students who were each enrolled in one of 62 2-yr institutions. Four mutually exclusive categories of vocational choice change were constructed. Ability, interest, and family background measures were used as independent variables. Results indicated (a) that changers were very similar to nonchangers in terms of the independent variables examined, (b) that there were substantial differences in the choice changes made by males and females, and (c) that vocational choice change patterns varied widely among groups of individuals whose original vocational choices places them in different major vocational categories.     

Coordination dynamics of rhythmical and discrete prehension movements: Implications of the scanning procedure and individual differences

The aim of this study was to compare the coordination dynamics of discrete and rhythmical reaching and grasping movements from a dynamical systems perspective. Previous research from this theoretical perspective had focused on rhythmical actions and it is unclear to what extent discrete movements are amenable to a similar dynamical systems analysis. Six adult subjects performed prehension in two conditions: a discrete, non-continuous mode and a rhythmical, continuous mode. A `scanning procedure' was implemented between pre- and post-tests in which the required time of final relative hand closure (T_rfc) was systematically varied. It was shown that the error in the reaching and grasping pattern was least at an attractor region and systematically increased with deviation from the attractor. Results also indicated that there were no differences between condition or trial block for the group. However, there were several within-subject effects of interest. The validity of the scanning procedure was found to be questionable in the discrete condition, where four subjects showed differences in T_rfc between pre- or post-test and the predicted T_rfc of the scanning procedure. Four out of six subjects also had different preferred T_rfc values for discrete and rhythmical movement, indicating that individual specific models might need to be constructed for future dynamical modelling of discrete movement.PsycINFO classification: 2330     

Some probabilistic models of best, worst, and best-worst choices

Over the past decade or so, a choice design in which a person is asked to select both the best and the worst option in an available set of options has been gaining favor over more traditional designs, such as where the person is asked, for instance, to: select the best option; select the worst option; rank the options; or rate the options. In this paper, we develop theoretical results for three overlapping classes of probabilistic models for best, worst, and best-worst choices, with the models in each class proposing specific ways in which such choices might be related. The models in these three classes are called random ranking and random utility, joint and sequential, and ratio scale. We include some models that belong to more than one class, with the best known being the maximum-difference (maxdiff) model, summarize estimation issues related to the models, and formulate a number of open theoretical problems.     

Procedural justice effects on self-esteem under certainty versus uncertainty emotions

Building upon the idea that procedural justice effects are more pronounced when uncertainty is high, we proposed that recall of an uncertainty-eliciting emotion (fear) will render people more responsive to variations in procedural justice than will recall of a certainty-eliciting emotion (disgust). Results from Study 1, (n = 79 undergraduate students) confirmed that a fair procedure (voice condition) enhanced self-esteem relative to an unfair procedure (no voice condition) to a greater extent when people recalled fear than when they recalled disgust. Results from Study 2 (n = 147 undergraduate students) also showed that a fair, relative to an unfair, procedure enhanced self-esteem more strongly when recalling the emotion of fear rather than disgust, but only when these emotions were recalled from a self-immersed than a self-distanced perspective. These findings confirm that discrete emotions that orient people to interpret situations in uncertain versus certain ways are important antecedents of procedural justice effects.     

Discussions of Diversity in a Classroom: A Phenomenological Study of Students in an MFT Training Program

Discussions about diversity, particularly race, gender, religion and spirituality, and sexual orientation, in marriage and family therapy courses can generate emotional responses in students and professors that vary from shame to anger. These discussions are necessary to help students understand diverse families as well as how one’s biases can affect his/her clinical work. Our qualitative study consisted of phenomenological interviews, which focused on discussions of diversity by six students from a marriage and family therapy program. Findings revealed that the ability of students to be aware of and discuss their reactions to these discussions is complex and influenced by their families of origin, their perceptions of other students, their views of the professor, and their race. Teaching implications are discussed in light of these findings.     

Innovative Methods for Making Behavioral Science Relevant to Medical Education

Thousands of psychologists teach in U.S. medical schools, and these psychologists are responsible for ensuring that the medical students they train are aware of the ways in which research findings from the behavioral and social sciences can enhance the practice of medicine. In addition, it is imperative that physicians appreciate the limits of their own ability to treat psychological and psychiatric problems and know when to refer to mental health professionals. This brief article is based on a talk given by the author at the 2007 American Psychological Association (APA) convention after receiving the Association of Psychologists in Academic Health Centers (APAHC) Ivan Mensh Award for Distinguished Achievement in Teaching. The paper draws on the personal experiences of the author after three decades spent teaching behavioral science to medical students, and it introduces readers to the reasoning behind many of the decisions made in planning and developing each of the author’s four editions of the medical school text Behavior and Medicine.

On the existence of extremal cones and comparative probability orderings

We study the recently discovered phenomenon [Conder, M. D. E., & Slinko, A. M. (2004). A counterexample to Fishburn's conjecture. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 48(6), 425-431] of existence of comparative probability orderings on finite sets that violate the Fishburn hypothesis [Fishburn, P. C. (1996). Finite linear qualitative probability. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 40, 64-77; Fishburn, P. C. (1997). Failure of cancellation conditions for additive linear orders. Journal of Combinatorial Designs, 5, 353-365]—we call such orderings and the discrete cones associated with them extremal. Conder and Slinko constructed an extremal discrete cone on a set of n=7 elements and showed that no extremal cones exist on a set of n?6 elements. In this paper we construct an extremal cone on a finite set of prime cardinality p if p satisfies a certain number theoretical condition. This condition has been computationally checked to hold for 1725 of the 1842 primes between 132 and 16,000, hence for all these primes extremal cones exist.