Two-dimensionalism and the epistemology of recognition

There is reason to expect a reasonable account of a priori knowledge to be linked with an account of the nature of conceptual thought. Recent “two-dimensionalist” accounts of conceptual thought propose an extremely direct connection between the two: on such views, being in a position to know a priori a large number of non-trivial propositions is a necessary condition of concept-possession. In this paper I criticize this view, by arguing that it requires an implausibly internalist and intellectualist conception of capacities we bring to bear in applying concepts in experience. Empirical concept-application depends on the exercise of a variety of capacities, many of which can be grouped together under the general label “recognitional”. As I argue, two-dimensionalism cannot accommodate a plausible account of such capacities. This suggests that the link between a priori knowledge and the nature of conceptual thought is not as direct as twodimensionalists take it to be. I close by briefly sketching a different way to think of that link.

Trumping the causal influence account of causation

Here is a simple counterexample to David Lewis’s causal influence account of causation, one that is especially illuminating due to its connection to what Lewis himself writes: it is a variant of his trumping example

Vivid memories

Fifty-eight undergraduates each recorded their three clearest autobiographical memories and answered questions about them. The resulting 174 memories were almost all rated to be of high personal importance, but low national importance. In contrast to published results of flashbulb memories cued by events which were specific, nationally important, surprising, and consequential, the ratings collected here covered the scales of surprise and consequentiality in a fairly uniform manner. The subjects also answered questions about memories cued by 20 events. For each subject, some of these memories were of ‘flashbulb’ clarity and some were not. The clearer memories were more surprising, consequential, and emotional, indicating that these factors are associated with, though not necessary for, vivid memories.     

A model of fixed activation time scheduling

A model for the fixed activation time scheduling of events is presented. Activation time is defined as the time needed for an event to regain dominance in the stream of events measured from the point in time at which it lost dominance. The fixed activation time scheduling rule states that some event must be ongoing at all times, that an ongoing event will continue until interrupted by another event, that every event has a predetermined activation time and that fulfilling the activation time requirement is the necessary and sufficient condition for an event to interrupt an ongoing event. The last condition sets this rule apart from those employed in quequeing theory since it does not allow events to be completed or queues to form. Derivations from the model concerning the dynamic organization of the stream of events, written in terms of the frequency and duration of events and the transitions between pairs of events, are given. Special attention is paid to issues that arise in deciding on the coding of events. It is suggested that the fixed activation time scheduling rule will apply to a wide variety of settings, environmental and behavioral, and this is illustrated by a detailed application of the model to observations on the stream of free behavior.     

Sex and handedness differences in EEG measures of hemispheric specialization

EEG alpha asymmetry was studied in 90 normal adults: right-handed, left-handed, and ambidextrous, male and female. Recordings were made from homologous central, parietal, and occipital leads, referenced to vertex, while subjects engaged in writing, speaking, reading, listening to speech, singing, and block design construction. These data confirm our previous findings that alpha asymmetry is task-dependent and extend them to a broader range of tasks, subjects, and leads. Among right-handers significant differences were found between the language tasks and the musical and spatial tasks: the $\text{R}\text{L}$ alpha ratio is higher in the language tasks. In addition, significant ordering of $\text{R}\text{L}$ alpha ratios was found among the language tasks themselves: WRITE å SPEAK > READ > LISTEN. No one “verbal” task can be considered representative of all language behaviors. Task differences in asymmetry were greater at the central than at the parietal leads, and no differences were found at the occiput. Differences among the handedness groups were found in $\text{R}\text{L}$ alpha ratio in specific tasks, in the relationship among tasks, and in alpha power level. Non-right-handers showed less task-dependent asymmetry. On some measures ambidexters appear to be a distinct group, not simply representing the middle range of a left-handed/right-handed continuum. Reversal of the “expected” right-handed pattern (SPEAK $\text{R}\text{L}$ ratio > BLOCKS $\text{R}\text{L}$ ratio) was seen in 10% of right-handers, and in 36% of left-handers, particularly among left-handed females (46%), suggesting a possible sex difference among non-right-handers. No sex difference was found among right-handers on any task with any measure at any lead.     

Exogenous, endogenous, and dialectical constructivism

Three constructivist paradigms are distinguished. Exogenous constructivism (rooted in a mechanistic metaphor) emphasizes the reconstruction of structures preformed in the environment. Endogenous constructivism (rooted in an organismic metaphor) emphasizes the coordination of previous organismic structures. Dialectical constructivism (rooted in a contextualistic metaphor) emphasizes the construction of new structures out of organism/environment interaction. It is suggested that more general metatheories integrating exogenous, endogenous, and dialectical aspects of the construction of knowledge can and should be formulated. Such formulations would not attempt an impossible synthesis of the root metaphors, but rather integrate them in a coherent metatheory by specifying the boundary conditions in which each root metaphor best applies. An example of such a metatheory, based primarily on Piagetian ideas, is presented.     

A sociolinguistic approach to the belief-similarity model of racial attitudes

This study examined the belief-similarity model of prejudice from a sociolinguistic perspective. It was hypothesized that normatively regulated speech styles strongly affect observers' assumptions about the cultural background of the speaker. These linguistically based cultural assumptions were expected to override racial characteristics in controlling intergroup attitudes. Stimulus speech styles were Black English Vernacular (BEV) and Standard English (SE). Speech style was expected to strongly affect prejudicial attitudes, with such effects mediated by assumed cultural similarity. Racial label and speech style were expected to be most salient to ratings of “intimate” behavior and among more ethnocentric subjects. Subjects heard taped statements in either BEV or SE, ostensibly delivered by a White or a Black speaker. Subjects rated the speaker on perceived cultural similarity, general evaluation, perceived aggressiveness, and social distance. Speech style had a substantial main effect on each of these variables. Racial label had a marginally significant effect on evaluation, and interacted with ethnocentrism for perceived similarity and social distance. All effects of speech, race, and ethnocentrism were substantially attenuated or eliminated when similarity was used as a covariate. Thus, speech style had substantial effects on prejudice, as did race within more ethnocentric subjects. Both effects were largely mediated by assumed cultural similarity.     

Dimensions of adolescent career development: A multi-instrument analysis

Dimensions of adolescent career development were assessed by several well-established, objectively scored instruments. Attention was given to the correlations between measures of academic achievement and career development. Correlations among 19 scales administered to 237 eleventh graders revealed three clusters of converging scale pairs, labeled “Certainty,” “Decision-Making,” and “Activity.” Four orthogonal factors were identified and given the following heuristic labels: “Cognitive Resources for Decision-Making,” “Decision-Making Style,” “Systematic Involvement in Career Decision-Making,” and “Decision-Making Stage/Certainty.” Results are discussed in relation to practical problems of instrument selection and score interpretation and in the context of theories of adolescent career development.