THE TOKEN ECONOMY: A DECADE LATER

In the last decade, the token economy has been extended widely across populations and behaviors in treatment, rehabilitation, educational, and community settings. Outcome research has expanded as well to include large-scale program evaluations and comparative and combined treatment studies of the token economy. In a previous review (Kazdin & Bootzin, 1972), several obstacles were identified for the effective application of the token economy. These included identifying procedures to enhance program efficacy, to train staff, to overcome client resistance, and to promote long-term maintenance and transfer of training. The present paper discusses recent advances in research and reviews progress on the major issues identified previously. New issues have become salient in the last decade that pertain to the extension of the token economy to institutional settings. The demands for maintaining the integrity of treatment, the ability to integrate token economies within existing institutional constraints, and the disseminability of the procedures on a large scale are major issues that may dictate the future of the token economy.     

Motivated remembering efforts during tip-of-the-tongue states

Hart (1965) argues that the feeling of knowing in tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) states monitors memory content and motivates retreival efforts. Although a number of studies have examined the memory-monitoring accuracy of feelings of knowing and not-knowing, no studies have focused directly on the hypothesized motivational function of these feeling states. This second function of memory feeling states is investigated in this study by assessing the degree to which TOT and Don't Know (DK) states interfere with a subject's ability to perform well on a concurrent task. Subjects studied a list of arbitrary word pairs for 3, 5, or 7 seconds and then provided Recall, TOT, or DK reports in an immediate recall test. Performance on the simple number-probe task that followed each memory report was poorer on TOT trials than on DK trials. This effect did not vary as a function of encoding time. Since covert memory searches were possible on both TOT and DK trials, it is concluded that the performance decrement observed on TOT trials is due to the fact that covert TOT target searches command processing capacity that might otherwise go to the concurrent number-probe task. The absence of an encoding time effect suggests that TOT states do not monitor the associative strength of target traces as Hart (1967) has proposed. The findings in this study are interpreted as providing support for the proposition that the feeling of knowing in the TOT state influences the setting of capacity-allocation priorities in the memory system.     

Dynamique des valeurs culturelles au travail en contexte gabonais : influence de la culture nationale et de la culture d’entreprise occidentale

More and more Western organizations settle in Africa and import their corporate culture. This contrasts strongly with local national culture. The present study examines the direct links and the interactive effect of Gabonese culture and Western corporate culture on workplace cultural values. A total of 650 Gabonese employees working in Western organizations answered a questionnaire. The results indicate that Gabonese national culture and Western corporate culture are differentially linked with collectivism at work, given that the former is positively associated whereas the latter is negatively associated. Moreover, an additive effect of both cultures on the distance to power. Thus, the cohabitation between Gabonese national culture and Western corporate culture leads to a mismatch of cultural values at workplace.     

A subculture of mental toughness in an Australian Football League club

ObjectiveThe current study aimed to provide a subcultural analysis of mental toughness in a high-performance context in sport.DesignUsing Schein's (1990) framework of organisational culture, an exploratory qualitative analysis, employing focus group and individual interviews, was used to investigate mental toughness in an Australian Football League club.MethodNine senior coaches and players participated in focus group and individual interviews. Photo elicitation was used as a method to capture mental toughness through the identification of prominent club artefacts. Participants were considered to have significant subcultural knowledge of their football club and were willing to describe personal experiences and perceptions of mental toughness through this cultural lens. Deductive and inductive analyses were conducted to capture the core themes of mental toughness across the disparate levels of Schein's organisational framework.ResultsMental toughness was found to be a socially derived term marked by unrelenting standards and sacrificial displays. These acts were underpinned by subcultural values emphasising a desire for constant improvement, a team first ethos, relentless effort, and the maintenance of an infallible image. At its core, mental toughness was assumed to be an internal concept, epitomised an idealised form of masculinity, elitist values, and was rhetorically depicted through metaphors of war.ConclusionsIt may be difficult to understand mental toughness without giving attention to the contextual norms related to the term. Appreciating how people promote, instil, and internalise prized ideals coveted as mental toughness could be intriguing for future research in sport psychology.     

Forty Years’ Study of Chinese Philosophy

Since China’s reform and opening up in 1978, the study of Chinese philosophy has proceeded together with the times, not only making tremendous academic progress, but also serving as an important part of research on Chinese culture that undertakes the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. This essay gives a brief review of the study of Chinese philosophy over the last forty years with particular attention to five aspects, namely the new horizons in the study of Chinese philosophy, the characteristics of Chinese philosophy, the comparison between Chinese and Western philosophy that also involves the “legitimacy” of the former, the relevance of Chinese philosophy for contemporary times, and the basic methodologies of Chinese philosophy.     

Contextualizing rape: Reviewing sequelae and proposing a culturally inclusive ecological model of sexual assault recovery

Consistent evidence demonstrates that many women who encounter the trauma of rape experience a range of both acute reactions and chronic psychological sequelae. This article reviews both the short- and long-term psychological adjustment issues associated with rape. In addition, we propose a culturally inclusive ecological model of sexual assault recovery (CIEMSAR), which integrates and extends existing models to better examine the complex factors leading to differential postrape adjustment. Important components of the CIEMSAR are placing rape in the broader sociocultural context of the United States and explicated socioracial and ethnic factors influencing the recovery process. The five primary factors of CIEMSAR are outlined, including (a) macrosystem or sociocultural context factors; microsystem/individual factors such as (b) assault characteristics, (c) person variables, (d) coping responses; and mesosystems factors such as (e) social-support systems. Suggestions for future research are also provided.     

Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment Scale,Mini‐Mental State Examination and General Practitioner Assessment of Cognition in a multicultural cohort of community‐dwelling older persons with early dementia

Early dementia can be difficult to diagnose in older persons from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds. The Folstein Mini‐Mental State Examination (MMSE), the General Practitioner Assessment of Cognition (GPCOG) and the Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment Scale (RUDAS) were compared in 151 older, community‐dwelling persons. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was used to evaluate diagnostic accuracy, while logistic regression was used to evaluate the influence of age, gender, CALD status and years of education. All three instruments were equally accurate in predicting dementia (ROC area under curve 0.92–0.97, p > 0.05 for all comparisons). At the recommended cut‐offs, the RUDAS was best for ruling in dementia (positive LR = 8.77), while the GPCOG was best for ruling out dementia (negative LR = 0.03). All three instruments were influenced by concomitant depression. Whereas the MMSE was influenced by CALD status, the RUDAS and GPCOG were not. While the GPCOG combines participant and informant data, the RUDAS is a stand‐alone measure specifically designed for, and validated in, multicultural populations.     

Communicating evidence‐based mental health care to service users

There is a significant gap between evidence‐based mental health care and patients, their family members and carers. To inform preventative mental health care among existing and potential service users, this review identifies effective methods for communicating evidence. A systematic review located 14 publications that met search criteria. Several methods can effect behavioural and/or intermediary change among existing and/or potential service users: namely, mass media; health warning labels; policy change; community interventions; school‐based programs; parent programs; and psychoeducation. Robust evidence, however, is lacking. Although effective approaches are likely to be founded on several factors, the review concludes with a discussion of a research agenda, and appropriate methodologies that could strengthen the knowledge base that guides the communication of evidence‐based mental health care to service users. This agenda has important implications for practitioners, policymakers, and researchers, which are also discussed.     

Identifying and understanding gaps in services for adults experiencing homelessness

Gaps between service needs and availability often prevent individuals with a history of homelessness from accessing services and reestablishing permanent housing. This paper examines self‐identified service utilization and service needs based on data collected from an urban sample (N = 577) of adults experiencing homelessness. This study found that individuals differ in their use and continued need of services depending on the reasons they identified as contributing to their homelessness. The majority reported that they learned of services through word of mouth, had difficulty accessing services due to limited transportation options, and were most likely to use services that were in convenient locations that fulfilled their needs and where they were treated with respect. These findings have implications for developing coordinated intakes and the development and dissemination of services aimed at assisting individuals experiencing homelessness.     

The association between in-class cultural diversity with empathy and bullying in adolescence: A multilevel mediation analysis

Little is known about the associations between cultural class composition, teacher support for diversity (TSD), cognitive and affective empathy, and bullying and victimisation. Research shows that empathy is negatively associated with bullying and victimisation; and support for diversity and classroom cultural diversity are positively linked to social skills. The present study examines whether cultural diversity and perceived TSD are protective factors against bullying and victimisation, either directly or mediated by empathy. Participants were 897 students from Grades 7 to 10 (M_age = 13.45, SD_age = 1.07, 51.3% girls, 46.7% boys) in 36 classes. Multilevel mediation analyses were conducted. Age and gender were controlled for. More perceived TSD and affective empathy were associated with less bullying. Moreover, the effect of perceived TSD on bullying was partly indirect through affective empathy. Victimisation was not predicted by the study variables. The class level showed no effects. Bullying and victimisation are complex phenomena, which seem to be linked more to individual than to class characteristics. The result that higher perceived TSD was linked to empathy and bullying provides a promising starting point for measures of competence enhancement and bullying prevention.