Learned helplessness and the schedule-shift hypotheses

The critique of learned helplessness research and theory and the alternative schedule-shift discrimination hypothesis offered by McReynolds (Journal of Research and Personality, 1980,14, 139–157) are considered. Each point made by McReynolds is discussed and a variety of recent experimental evidence is reviewed. It is concluded that McReynolds' critique is without substance and that the schedule-shift discrimination explanation of the learned helplessness effect is contradicted by existing data.     

Regional cerebral blood flow response to recognition memory versus semantic classification tasks

Two randomly assigned groups, N = 7 each, of neurologically normal patients were composed. One group, RM, had regional cerebral blood flow measurements during a recognition memory probe test; the other group, SC, had rCBF measurements during a semantic classification task, using the same stimulus and response features as the RM task. Thus, the groups differed only in the cognitive instruction they were executing. The RM group showed a significantly lower change from resting baseline to activation, in mean left hemisphere initial slope index, than did the SC group. The RM group, but not the SC group, showed a significant inverse correlation between occipital flow and accuracy of memory performance as indicated by d′. Correlations between age and hemispheric initial slope index, and between homologous left and right hemisphere sites, were also described. The results are considered to support an anatomical basis for the distinction between episodic and semantic memory and to suggest that occipital flow may diminish with accurate memory performance because of an upstream demand of blood in the medial temporal lobes.     

Unilateral agraphia after section of the posterior half of the truncus of the corpus callosum

Children ranging in age from 3 to 12 tapped on a morse key with their index finger as fast as possible. After a control test, they concurrently tapped and recited a nursery rhyme, recited animal names, and memorized shapes. Previous results suggested that more interference in a motor task results from attempting at the same time to perform another task controlled by the same, than by a different, hemisphere. Right-handed tapping and talking both used left hemisphere space; left-handed tapping and talking were controlled by different hemispheres. Relative to silent tapping concurrent talking caused a greater drop in right-hand tapping rate than in left-hand tapping rate in both the rhyme and animal conditions. Interference by shape memorizing was equal across hands. The differential effect of speaking on right-hand preference indicates the left lateralization of speech output control. The size of this effect did not vary with increasing grade level. The findings support the view that speech output control is fully lateralized at least by age 3 years.     

The effects of Familial Sinistrality and preferred hand on dichaptic and dichotic tasks

Processing asymmetries for tactile-spatial and auditory-verbal processing were investigated in two studies using the S. F. Witelson (1974, Cortex, 10, 3–17) dichaptic procedure. Experiment 1 used eight right-handed males in a free recall procedure. More shapes were correctly detected by the left hand but only with a right hand response. In Experiment 2, right and left handers with no Familial Sinistrality (FS) were compared with left handers with various types of FS, looking at pre- and postcued order of report and precuing the response hand. No group showed hand asymmetry with pre- or postcuing for either responding hand. Right handers showed no difference with order of report; however, left handers made fewer correct detections for items to be reported second. There were differences between the Parental FS and the Sibling FS groups both on the dichotic listening and the haptic tasks.     

The use of averaged electroencephalic response techniques in the study of auditory processing related to speech and language

This paper reviews a number of studies done by the authors and others, who have utilized various averaged electroencephalic response (AER) techniques to study speech and language processing. Pertinent studies are described in detail. A relatively new AER technique, auditory brainstem responses (ABR), is described and its usefulness in studying auditory processing activity related to speech and language is outlined. In addition, a series of ABR studies, that have demonstrated significant male—female differences in ABR auditory processing abilities, is presented and the relevance of these data to already established differences in male—female language, hearing, and cognitive abilities is discussed.     

Visual processing of multielement arrays and selective backward masking

In the first of two selective masking experiments, 7-letter rows were followed at several ISIs by a mask or no-mask and a bar-marker partial report cue. The results suggest that the arrays were processed ends-first and then, in general, from both ends towards the middle. In the second experiment, bar-marker partial report cues were presented at the onset or offset of 6-letter/1-digit or 7-letter rows. The subjects could not anticipate the category of the to-be-reported item with the alphanumeric displays. With a delayed cue, selective masking was obtained with both mixed category and pure letter arrays, but with simultaneous cuing, masking was always distributed across all serial positions. The results suggest that the subjects: (a) abstracted some information about category from the mixed arrays during an initial parallel stage of processing, (b) selectively attended to mainly the cued item with simultaneous probes with homeogeneous and mixed category displays, and (c) employed an ends-first processing strategy with both types of arrays when the bar-marker partial report cue was delayed.     

Pupillometric assessment of retrieval operations in factual long-term memory

The process involved in recall from long-term memory were studied through the use of a general knowledge questionnaire and the technique of pupillometry. Degree of processing of the components of the retrieval process was inferred from second-by-second monitoring of pupil size. Measurements were recorded during subjects' attempts to retrieve the answer to the query, or if unsuccessful, from clues of the target (first and last letters), and if still unsuccessful, to recognize the presented target word as being associated with the question (the “Of course”, or “That's it!” experience). Pupil size differed according to the nature of the three task demands. Additionally, there were differences based on the type of outcome within the question trial (e.g., between target known but blocked — feeling-of-knowing/tip-of-tongue — and target not known), and the answer trial (recognize vs not recognize the question—answer relationship). The results were related to the search and decisional processes of retrieval.