Preparing or executing the wrong task: The influence on switch effects

In a previous study, it was proposed that executing a task leads to task strengthening. In other words, task activation at the moment of response execution determines subsequent switch effects (Steinhauser & Hübner, 2006). The authors investigated this issue by comparing switch effects after task and response errors. However, the use of bivalent stimulus–response mappings might have obscured some of the effects. Therefore, we replicated the experiment using univalent stimulus–response mappings. With this adjusted design, which overcomes some shortcomings of the original study, we were able to replicate the finding of switch benefits after task errors. Closer inspection of the data showed the importance of preexecution processes on subsequent switch effects. In a second experiment, we further elaborated on these preexecution processes. More precisely, we investigated the effect of task preparation on subsequent switch effects. Taken together, our data extend current accounts of task switching by showing that the preparatory processes occurring before the response on trial n influence the switch cost on trial n?+?1.     

基于经验的计算机作曲方法的研究与实现

介绍与归纳了现有多种作曲算法的不同特点及适用范围。结合多位音乐创作者作曲经验,提出了基于经验的作曲算法,针对不同的思维阶段提出了不同的实现方法,详细介绍了创作初期灵感的形式化表现和以及实现方式。     

Knowledge of Results for Motor Learning: Relationship Between Error Estimation and Knowledge of Results Frequency

The authors of the present study investigated the apparent contradiction between early and more recent views of knowledge of results (KR), the idea that how one is engaged before receiving KR may not be independent of how one uses that KR. In a 2 × 2 factorial design, participants (N = 64) practiced a simple force-production task and (a) were required, or not required, to estimate error about their previous response and (b) were provided KR either after every response (100%) or after every 5th response (20%) during acquisition. A no-KR retention test revealed an interaction between acquisition error estimation and KR frequencies. The group that received 100% KR and was required to error estimate during acquisition performed the best during retention. The 2 groups that received 20% KR performed less well. Finally, the group that received 100% KR and was not required to error estimate during acquisition performed the poorest during retention. One general interpretation of that pattern of results is that motor learning is an increasing function of the degree to which participants use KR to test response hypotheses (J. A. Adams, 1971; R. A. Schmidt, 1975). Practicing simple responses coupled with error estimation may embody response hypotheses that can be tested with KR, thus benefiting motor learning most under a 100% KR condition. Practicing simple responses without error estimation is less likely to embody response hypothesis, however, which may increase the probability that participants will use KR to guide upcoming responses, thus attenuating motor learning under a 100% KR condition. The authors conclude, therefore, that how one is engaged before receiving KR may not be independent of how one uses KR.     

Analytic smoothing for equipercentile equating under the common item nonequivalent populations design

A cubic spline method for smoothing equipercentile equating relationships under the common item nonequivalent populations design is described. Statistical techniques based on bootstrap estimation are presented that are designed to aid in choosing an equating method/degree of smoothing. These include: (a) asymptotic significance tests that compare no equating and linear equating to equipercentile equating; (b) a scheme for estimating total equating error and for dividing total estimated error into systematic and random components. The smoothing technique and statistical procedures are explored and illustrated using data from forms of a professional certification test.     

Retrospective questions and correlations

In survey research it is not uncommon to ask questions of the following type: “How many times did you undertake actiona in reference periodT of length τ?.” The relationship is established between τ and the correlation of the number of reported actions with some background variable. To this end it is assumed that the process of actions satisfies a renewal model with individual heterogeneity. Also a model has to be formulated for possible recall effects. Applications are given in the field of medical consumption.     

论《荀子》的幽默艺术特色

目前对《荀子》作为著名散文著作之一的研究,从艺术性上的分析止于对其譬喻和大量排比句法的一般肯定。本文认为《荀子》中的幽默风格是应予关注到的艺术特点之一。文中的荒谬意味比喻、错倒描写、对因果不协调的现象原因的欲擒故纵的揭示、猜谜语谐隐游戏形式等幽默手法都值得珍视和进一步探索。     

错误加工意识水平与错误相关脑电成分

错误加工的意识水平包括有意识水平、无意识水平以及介于两者之间的意识水平。意识水平的划分通常通过错误报告范式实现。根据其对意识水平的划分, 可以将相关研究分为二元意识水平研究和多元意识水平研究。已有研究, 主要关注于意识水平与错误诱发的Ne、Pe的关系。两类研究一致表明, Pe受意识水平的调节, 但是并没有得到fMRI研究的一致支持。对Ne的激活是否独立于意识, 研究者们仍存在争议。还有研究考察了注意对错误意识水平的影响, 结果支持Pe与意识水平共变的观点, 但是对注意如何影响错误意识水平还存在质疑。在对以上研究进行整理与分析的基础上, 对将来的研究提出了建议。     

A Comparison of Least-to-Most Prompts and Progressive Time Delay on the Disruptive Behavior of Students with Autism

We compared the effects of two instructional strategies on the frequency of errors and episodes of disruptive behavior of 4 students with autism. In Phase I, easy and difficult tasks were presented to determine whether the tasks were associated with differential rates of disruptive behavior. Phase II compared the effects of a least-to-most prompting procedure (LTM) to a progressive time delay procedure (PTD) on errors and disruptive behavior when difficult tasks were presented. Observers sequentially recorded instructor instructions, response prompts, prompts for appropriate sitting, and feedback statements; and student disruptive, correct, error, and no responses during 1:1 sessions. Results showed PTD produced fewer errors than LTM for all 4 students, and lower rates of disruptive behavior for 2 students. When PTD was implemented as the final phase with 2 of the students, rates of disruptive behavior associated with the task previously taught with LTM immediately decreased. Conditional probability statements indicated that disruptive behavior occurred infrequently with all 4 students when effective response prompts were used.     

A comparison of self-instructional checking procedures for remediating mathematical deficits

We examined the relative effectiveness of three procedures for teaching long multiplication/division to seven adolescents with learning disabilities: no-checking, end-checking, and multi-checking. During training, each subject was taught by modelling and imitation to verbalize self-instructions in the form of a strategy while solving the problems. The relative effects of the checking and no-checking procedures on accuracy and rate of problems completed were examined in an alternating treatments design. The best treatment was then given alone and a reversal was implemented six weeks later, followed by a return to the best treatment during a final phase. Irrespective of the procedure used, the subjects' accuracy improved while the rate of problems completed decreased. These effects were greatest with the multi-checking procedure for six of the seven subjects. Generalization to untaught problems of various levels of complexity occurred under all procedures. Though maintenance effects were seen during the follow-up, accuracy was generally higher and more reliable when the subject's best checking procedure was reinstated. It is suggested that error detection and correction were important for maintaining high levels of accuracy and that these operated differentially in the three procedures to produce the differing levels of accuracy. The role of other factors such as pre-skill knowledge, complexity of the problem and prior reinforcement history are also considered.     

Consistency measures for pairwise comparison matrices

We propose new measures of consistency of additive and multiplicative pairwise comparison matrices. These measures, the relative consistency and relative error, are easy to compute and have clear and simple algebraic and geometric meaning, interpretation and properties. The correspondence between these measures in the additive and multiplicative cases reflects the same correspondence which underpins the algebraic structure of the problem and relates naturally to the corresponding optimization models and axiom systems. The relative consistency and relative error are related to one another by the theorem of Pythagoras through the decomposition of comparison matrices into their consistent and error components. One of the conclusions of our analysis is that inconsistency is not a sufficient reason for revision of judgements. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.