Phonatory initiation,termination, and vocal frequency change reaction times of stutterers

Four types of voice reaction times were investigated for eight adult stutterers and eight control subjects using a vocal shadowing paradigm. These were voice initiation and termination reaction times (VIT and VTT, respectively) and voice frequency-shift intiation and termination reaction times (SIT and STT, respectively). Results indicated that the stutterers were slower in VIT, but were as fast as their control subjects in VTT, SIT, and STT. It was suggested that a laryngeal discoordination problem of stutterers lies primarily in the stage of adduction (turning on the voicing) rather than in the stage of abduction (turning off the voicing) or in finer frequency control at the larynx.     

A model of problem solving with incomplete constraint knowledge

The problem-solving behavior of subjects presented with a series of Tower of Hanoi problems is examined. A production system model which incorporates elements of domain-specific knowledge into a general problem-solving framework is presented. Other models developed for the task are based on understanding of complete solution strategies and are not satisfactory models of nonexpert human performance. The current model discriminates between problem-solving behavior based on constraint knowledge and behavior based on nonspecific general search strategies. A variety of move choice and latency measures are used to compare the performance of the model to human subject performance.     

Problems with the slosson intelligence test for preschool children

The Slosson Intelligence Test (SIT) was administered to 92 preschool children. Because of the considerably above average performance of the group on the SIT, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale was administered to a sample of the group and the results compared to the results on the SIT. The differences between the two sets of scores was highly significant, and as a result the SIT appears to over estimate the performance of average preschool children.     

Hemispheric specialization in learning disabled readers' recall as a function of age and level of processing

This study was designed to test the inadequacy of two theoretical accounts of learning disabled readers' memory deficiencies. Two age groups of learning disabled and nondisabled readers were compared on diotic and dichotic listening recall tasks for semantically organized, phonemically organized, and categorically unrelated word lists presented in either the left, right, or both ears. Dependent measures were free recall, serial recall, recall organization, and hierarchical organization. As expected, recall increases were a function of age, group, and level of word processing. However, the results clearly demonstrated that age and group recall differences were an interaction of both mode of presentation and level of processing. The recall differences between reading groups were attributed to word knowledge (superordinate categorization) rather than recall organization within cerebral hemispheres or differences in hemispheric capacity, per se.     

Sex differences in restoring justice: The down payment effect

It was proposed that harmdoers who psychologically suffer (e.g., experience remorse, guilt) through victimizing another will be viewed as having already taken a step toward righting the injustice caused the victim. Consequently, they should be asked to make fewer reparations and assigned a lesser fine than those harmdoers who do not express guilt or remorse. Male and female subjects read scenarios depicting an accident in which the harmdoer either admitted or did not admit responsibility (Experiment 1) or expressed various degrees of remorsefulness (Experiment 3). Both investigations indicated that a show of remorse or of a remorseful gesture (i.e., assuming responsibility) can partially vindicate harmdoers by requiring them to make fewer reparations to a victim (Experiment 1) or pay less of a fine (Experiment 3) among females only. Thus psychological damages incurred in a wrongful act can serve as a “down payment” toward restoring justice. In corroboration with these findings of sex differences, Experiment 2 revealed that females consider to a greater extent than males reasons such as a harmdoer's feelings when assigning a fine.     

Vocal changes in stutterers and nonstutterers during high- and low-pitched speech

This study was conducted to provide an indirect test of Wingate's “modified vocalization” hypothesis. In this formulation, the improved fluency that stutterers experience in various novel conditions is attributed to changes in the key correlates of stress, namely, fundamental frequency, vocal SPL, and rate.Normal speakers and stutterers read aloud in an habitual condition following instructions to read at higher- and lower-than-normal pitches. Objective measures were taken of subjects' fundamental frequency, fundamental frequency deviation, vocal SPL, and fluent reading rate. Disfluences were also counted. Findings showed that both stutterers and normals altered several features of voicing from the habitual to the two experimental conditions. Significant condition main effects emerged for fundamental frequency deviation, vocal SPL, fluent reading rate, and disfluency. The only meaningful between-group difference noted showed that the stutterers were more disfluent than the normals across all conditions. Results were interpreted as supporting Wingate's “modified vocalization” position and were discussed relative to how the vocal changes observed might act to promote fluency.     

Perceived aversiveness of recommended solution and locus of control as determinants of response to danger

As determined by their scores on Rotter's Locus of Control scale (Psychological Monographs, 1966, 80 (1, Whole No. 609)), internal and external subjects were exposed either to a high-, low-, or no-fear message on the dangers of exposure to a sunlamp. It was recommended to half the subjects in each condition that they apply a cream which was described as producing minimal skin irritation (low aversiveness), while half the subjects received recommendations to apply a cream described as producing considerable skin irritation (high aversiveness). It was predicted that (a) a high-fear message would be more effective than a low-fear message in getting subjects to use the cream, especially when the recommended behavior was perceived as low in aversivensss; and (b) a high-fear message would be more effective than a low fear message for subjects classified as internals. The second prediction was confirmed, and the first was tentatively supported. Results were interpreted in terms of the perceptual processes which may mediate the relationship between fear and action. The findings did not support the fear-drive model.