Playing the Simon game: Use of the Simon task for investigating human information processing

A little more than 40 years ago, J. R. Simon and colleagues introduced what is now called the Simon task, which yielded a correspondence effect known as the Simon effect. In this paper, I set Simon's contribution in the context of research on stimulus-response compatibility. The novel contribution of the Simon task is described, along with foundational findings using the task that Simon and colleagues reported. I acknowledge the significance of Simon's (1990) review chapter in generating my own interests in the Simon task and describe four selected lines of research from my lab that have been a result of those interests. The article concludes with a brief tribute to Simon and his contribution to experimental psychology.     

Processing of task-irrelevant natural scenes in social anxiety

In this study, by manipulating perceptual load, we investigated whether socially anxious people process task-irrelevant, non-emotional, natural scenes. When attention was directed to letters and perceptual load was low, task-irrelevant natural scenes were processed, as evidenced by repetition priming effects, in both high and low socially anxious people. In the high perceptual load condition, repetition-priming effects decreased in participants with low social anxiety, but not in those with high social anxiety. The results were the same when attention was directed to pictures of animals: even in the high perceptual load condition, high socially anxious participants processed task-irrelevant natural scenes, as evidenced by flanker effects. However, when attention was directed to pictures of people, task-irrelevant natural scenes were not processed by participants in either anxiety group, regardless of perceptual load. These results suggest that high socially anxious individuals could not inhibit task-irrelevant natural scenes under conditions of high perceptual load, except when attention was focused on people.     

A case series of attention modification in clinically anxious youths

Research in the last fifteen years suggests that anxious individuals selectively attend towards threatening information. Attention modification interventions for internalizing adults have been developed to target cognition at this basic level; these programs have demonstrated initial efficacy in attention bias and anxiety symptom reduction. To date, there have been no published studies of attention modification in youths with clinical levels of anxiety. The current case series examined the initial efficacy of a four-week (12 sessions) attention modification program (AMP) designed to train attention away from threat in 16 children and adolescents (ages 10 to 17) diagnosed with DSM-IV anxiety disorders. Overall, youths experienced a significant decrease in anxiety and depression symptoms, and 12 of 16 youths no longer met criteria for any anxiety diagnosis at post-treatment. AMP was feasible with youths, and all youths and parents deemed the program acceptable. These findings provide support for further research on the use of cognitive bias modification interventions with clinically anxious youths.     

Relation of depression to perceived social support: results from a randomized adolescent depression prevention trial

Theorists posit that certain behaviors exhibited by depressed individuals (e.g., negative self-statements, dependency, reassurance seeking, inappropriate or premature disclosures, passivity, social withdrawal) reduce social support, yet there have been few experimental tests of this hypothesis. Using data from a randomized depression prevention trial (N = 253) involving adolescents (M age = 15.5, SD = 1.2), we tested whether a cognitive behavioral group intervention that significantly reduced depressive symptoms relative to bibliotherapy and educational brochure control conditions through 2-year follow-up produced improvements in perceived parental and friend social support and whether change in depressive symptoms mediated the effect on change in social support. Cognitive behavioral group participants showed significantly greater increases in perceived friend social support through 1-year follow-up relative to bibliotherapy and brochure controls, but there were no significant effects for perceived parental support. Further, change in depressive symptoms appeared to mediate the effects of the intervention on change in perceived friend support. Results provide experimental support for the theory that depressive symptoms are inversely related to perceived social support, but imply that this effect may be specific to friend vs. parental support for adolescents.     

The role of cognitive resources in determining our moral intuitions: Are we all liberals at heart?

Recent research provides evidence that one important difference between liberals and conservatives is their basic moral intuitions. These studies suggest that while liberals and conservatives respond similarly to considerations of harm/care and fairness (what Graham and Haidt call the “individualizing” foundations), conservatives also respond strongly to considerations of in-group, authority, and purity (the “binding” foundations) while liberals do not. Our study examined two alternative hypotheses for this difference—the first being that liberals cognitively override, and the alternative being that conservatives cognitively enhance, their binding foundation intuitions. Using self-regulation depletion and cognitive load tasks to compromise people's ability to monitor and regulate their automatic moral responses, we found support for the latter hypothesis—when cognitive resources were depleted/distracted, conservatives became more like liberals (de-prioritizing the binding foundations), rather than the other way around. This provides support for the view that conservatism is a form of motivated social cognition.     

Approach motivation and cognitive resources combine to influence memory for positive emotional stimuli

Inspired by the elaborated intrusion theory of desire, the current research tested the hypothesis that persons higher in trait approach motivation process positive stimuli deeply, which enhances memory for them. Ninety-four undergraduates completed a measure of trait approach motivation, viewed positive or negative image slideshows in the presence or absence of a cognitive load, and one week later completed an image memory test. Higher trait approach motivation predicted better memory for the positive slideshow, but this memory boost disappeared under cognitive load. Approach motivation did not influence memory for the negative slideshow. The current findings support the idea that individuals higher in approach motivation spontaneously devote limited resources to processing positive stimuli.     

认知需求和认知闭合需求对风险决策中外语效应的影响

外语效应指相比于母语背景,个体在外语背景下风险决策偏差会降低。针对影响外语效应的因素研究大多聚焦于外部因素和与个体外语水平相关的因素,少有研究探讨认知风格的作用。本研究通过524名成人被试,探索认知需求和认知闭合需求对外语效应的影响。结果表明:(1)风险决策中存在外语效应,相比于母语背景,外语背景下框架效应被削弱,且个体更偏向风险寻求。(2)对于认知需求和认知闭合需求都高或都低的个体,语言类型会影响风险决策,在母语环境下倾向于风险规避,在外语环境下倾向于风险寻求;而对于认知需求和认知闭合需求高低不一致的个体,语言类型对其风险决策倾向的影响不显著。本研究为认知风格如何综合影响风险决策提供了进一步的证据。     

愉悦追求在自我调节疲劳与大学生智能手机成瘾之间的中介作用:自然联结的调节作用

采用问卷法对564名大学生进行调查,考察愉悦追求在自我调节疲劳和智能手机成瘾之间的中介作用,以及该中介作用是否会受到自然联结的调节。结果表明：（1）自我调节疲劳对大学生智能手机成瘾具有显著的正向预测作用;（2）愉悦追求在自我调节疲劳与大学生智能手机成瘾之间起着部分中介作用;（3）自我调节疲劳和愉悦追求的关系（中介效应的前半段路径）受到自然联结的调节,即自我调节疲劳对愉悦追求的正向影响随着自然联结的增强而减弱。因此,自我调节疲劳和大学生智能手机成瘾之间存在有调节的中介效应。     

负荷越大，转换更难-来自数字大小交替比较的证据

工作记忆与认知灵活性是执行功能的两个核心成分,但两者之间的关系并不清晰。本研究在一个数字大小交替比较任务中操纵工作记忆负荷,考察转换代价在不同记忆负荷下的差异。结果显示与非转换条件相比,转换条件下的反应时更长,正确率更低。另外,高记忆负荷下的转换代价显著高于低记忆负荷下的转换代价。这些结果表明工作记忆负荷越大,转换越难,代价越大。     

认知诊断中多分属性与二分属性的对比研究

摘 要：Karelitz（2004）和詹沛达等（2016）认为1个多分属性内部(Lk+1)个水平的关系相当于Lk个部分满足线型层级关系的二分属性。本研究的目的是通过比较多分属性模型和二分属性模型的判准率,从而验证多分属性和二分属性间是否存在以上关系。结果表明：当属性个数较少时,两个模型的模式判准率相当,随着属性个数增加,多分属性模型的模式判准率高于二分属性模型的模式判准率。结论：在一定程度上,多分属性和二分属性之间确实存在以上关系,但两者并非完全等价,二者间的差异随着属性个数增加更加明显。