Client Uncertainty and the Process of Change in Psychotherapy: The Impact of Individual Differences in Self-concept Clarity and Intolerance of Uncertainty

We describe a number of ways in which two major components of client uncertainty, namely, self-concept clarity and intolerance of uncertainty may either facilitate or impede change in psychotherapy. Clients with low self-concept clarity find it much more difficult to clearly identify and understand their problematic thoughts, emotions, and behaviors; thus slowing down their progress through the various stages identified in Prochaska’s model of psychotherapeutic change. To illustrate, they may engage in much more contemplation prior to action, as they struggle to increase their awareness and insight. Clients with high intolerance of uncertainty experience substantial discomfort when faced with uncertainty, causing them to be highly motivated to avoid or minimize any aspects of psychotherapy that focus on change. This may cause them to avoid confronting their problems during the action stage of therapy. We further suggest that it would be beneficial to assess these two components of client uncertainty very early on in the therapeutic process, in order to facilitate a given client’s progress. Finally, we indicate a need for much more research that explores the role of these two individual difference constructs during therapy. This might include, for example, studies that directly examine how self-concept clarity and intolerance of uncertainty may relate to progress through each stage of change, or the selective use of avoidance strategies. Authorship of this paper is equal. A special thanks to Joan Olinger for her many helpful comments on this paper. This paper won the 2007 Wilfred Quaytman Award for Innovations in Psychotherapy, jointly sponsored by the Long Island Consultation Center and International Scientific Comminucations, Inc. to commemorate the spirit and dedication of Dr. Wil Quaytman, psychologist, psychotherapist, and founding editor of the Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy.     

Conditioned taste aversion is enhanced when the unconditioned stimulus is presented in a different context

Using a conditioned taste aversion procedure with rats as the subjects, two experiments examined the effect of presenting a conditioned stimulus (CS saccharin solution) in one context followed by an unconditioned stimulus (US LiCl) in a different context. Experiment 1 showed that animals which received the above-mentioned procedure (Group D) showed a more marked conditioned aversion to the CS than animals which were given both the CS and the US in the same context (Group S). Experiment 2 found that in both Group D and Group S, aversion to the CS increased when the subjects were exposed to the conditioned context after the conditioning. These findings supported the argument that the strength of the CS-US association acquired during conditioning is compared with that of the context-US to determine the magnitude of aversion revealed to the CS.     

Scene structure enhances change detection

Theories of objects recognition, scene perception, and neural representation of scenes imply that jumbling a coherent scene should reduce change detection. However, evidence from the change detection literature questions whether jumbling affects change detection. The experiments reported here demonstrate that jumbling does, in fact, reduce change detection. In Experiments 1 and 2, change detection was better for normal scenes than for jumbled scenes. In Experiment 3, inversion failed to interfere with change detection, demonstrating that the disruption of surface and object continuity inherent to jumbling is responsible for reduced change detection. These findings provide a crucial commonality between change detection research and theories of scene perception and neural representation. We also discuss why previous research may have failed to find effects of jumbling.     

Cognitive abilities and personality traits in old age across four years: More stability than change

The current study (N = 236) examined stability and change of six cognitive abilities and three personality traits in old age (M = 74.12 years, SD = 4.40) over four years. Furthermore, we investigated whether levels of one domain were related to the other domain (and vice versa) four years later. The results showed a mean–level decline for processing speed and a mean–level increase for neuroticism. Cross–lagged effects indicated that reasoning was related to openness and conscientiousness was related to verbal knowledge four years later. In general, few and weak associations between the two domains were found. The findings showed that the development of cognitive abilities and personality traits in old age is marked more by stability than by change.     

Vocational interests across 20 years of adulthood: Stability,change, and the role of work experiences

Vocational interests demonstrate high rank-order stability during childhood and adolescence. However, few studies have investigated the development of vocational interests into adulthood. The present study examined rank-order and profile stability, mean-level and correlated change, and individual differences in change in RIASEC scores across 20 years of adulthood. In addition, life events were examined as moderators of change. Rank-order stability was strong across vocational interest dimensions. Mean-level changes also occurred, with increases in Realistic interests and decreases in Investigative interests for men, increases in Enterprising interests for women, and decreases in Artistic interests for men and women. Individual differences in change indicated that not everyone changed in the same manner, with occupational experiences, such as job loss, related to greater change.     

Longitudinal qualitative research and interpretative phenomenological analysis: philosophical connections and practical considerations

Qualitative longitudinal research designs are commonly considered a sensible orientation to exploring concepts of time and change. However, as a stand-alone method, qualitative longitudinal research has been criticized for its lack of philosophical and theoretical foundation (Hermanowicz 2013). This article explores the key tenets of qualitative longitudinal research and aligns with the notion that qualitative longitudinal designs be fused with other qualitative methods of data collection and analysis to enhance experimental trustworthiness (Calman, Brunton & Molassiotis 2013). Specifically, this article posits that a longitudinal design aligns well with the epistemological and ontological foundations of the interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) method to highlight longitudinal IPA as an emerging and distinctive qualitative methodology (Smith, Flowers & Larkin 2009). Practical considerations for conducting longitudinal IPA are also provided.     

汉字部件水平的重复知盲效应

本研究采用不同部件特点的汉字材料考察在汉字部件水平的重复知盲效应。实验1探究在一组刺激序列中,当两个关键刺激R1和R2的相同部件在不同位置时对重复知盲效应的影响。实验1结果表明,不同条件的重复知盲效应存在显著差异,但其中两个关键字中相同部件的位置相同时与部件位置不同时之间的重复知盲效应无显著差异,这表明部件位置对重复知盲现象无显著影响。实验2探究当关键刺激R1和R2为部件包含关系时的重复知盲效应。实验2结果表明,当一个关键刺激为独体字,且是另一个关键刺激的部件时存在重复知盲效应,其效应的大小会受到具有包含关系的两个关键字（合体字和独体字）在刺激序列中出现顺序的影响,当第二个关键刺激为独体字时的重复知盲效应要显著强于第二个关键刺激为合体字条件。研究结论是不同的汉字部件特点会影响重复之盲效应,这表明重复知盲现象很可能发生在在线的知觉加工过程。     

Threat, Authoritarianism, and Selective Exposure to Information

We examined the hypothesis that threat alters the cognitive strategies used by high authoritarians in seeking out new political information from the environment. In a laboratory experiment, threat was manipulated through a "mortality salience" manipulation used in research on terror management theory ( Pyszczynski, Solomon & Greenberg, 2003 ). Subjects (N = 92) were then invited to read one of three editorial articles on the topic of capital punishment. We found that in the absence of threat, both low and high authoritarians were responsive to salient norms of evenhandedness in information selection, preferring exposure to a two-sided article that presents the merits of both sides of an issue to an article that selectively touts the benefits of the pro or con side of the issue. However, in the presence of threat, high but not low authoritarians became significantly more interested in exposure to an article containing uniformly pro-attitudinal arguments, and significantly less interested in a balanced, two-sided article. Finally, a path analysis indicated that selective exposure to attitude-congruent information led to more internally consistent policy attitudes and inhibited attitude change. Discussion focuses on the role of threat in conditioning the cognitive and attitudinal effects of authoritarianism.     

《周易》象数对中国明堂礼制建筑的影响——以唐《定明堂规制诏》为例

“明堂”不仅是宗教祭祀的一种建筑象征,而且是上古政治活动的历史标志.本文以唐《定明堂规制诏》为例,通过分析其对明堂布局规模建制等的规定,阐述明堂建筑与易学象敬密切的联系,体现出作为中国哲学文化、天文和数学等结合的“易数”,在中国传统建筑尤其是礼制建筑中的重要应用,并为中国传统建筑研究提供了新思路.