Central capacity limits in consistent mapping,visual search tasks: Four channels or more?

The issue of limits in central processing capacity is of long-standing interest to psychologists. Some behaviors appear to draw on limited resources, others appear to have no resource limits. The existence of behaviors which do not compete for limited resources is suggested by the results from visual search experiments which keep constant the mapping of stimuli to responses. Behavior in such experiments is referred to as automatic detection. Results are reported which suggest, unlike the above, that resources are really quite limited in consistent mapping, visual search tasks. The results from this study (and other studies) are in agreement with a model of visual information processing behavior which assumes that the maximum number of cognitive comparison operations which can be executed simultaneously is restricted to somewhere in the neighborhood of four (the exact number depending on the subject). The model makes a strong prediction about the relation between the rate of stimulus presentation and accuracy, a prediction which is supported by the results. It is tentatively proposed that the steady-state, limited-channel model developed here may provide the beginnings of an integrated treatment of certain key results from subitizing and iconic memory experiments as well as visual search experiments.     

Interpersonal problem-solving skills training with aggressive young children

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of an interpersonal problem-solving training program with aggressive young children. There were 13 children in the experimental group and 11 children in the contact control group. Both experimental and contact control group children were evaluated at pretest, posttest, and follow-up on the Behavioral Interpersonal Problem Solving Test (BIPS). Experimental group subjects were exposed to the interpersonal problem-solving skills training program for 50 training sessions. The contact control group participated in reading-story sessions during the same time period. Results and discussion reflect the efficacy of the training procedure and the nature of the change in interpersonal problem-solving behavior in aggressive young children.     

Undergraduate preparation and early career outcomes: A study of recent college graduates

This study examined employment outcome among recipients of a liberal arts BA at a state university, 1 year (N = 218) and 3 years (N = 156) after graduation. A working definition of underemployment (educationally inappropriate employment) was developed and described. The relationship of age, sex, and previous educational and occupational experience to occupational and educational outcome was examined, using cross-tabular analysis with controls to specify high-risk groups. Variables reflecting occupational outcome were each differently related to the independent variables, and many relationships changed over time. Educationally appropriate employment was related to college major and to participation in internship or work-study programs. Income and perceived stability of present job were linked to age, sex, and previous employment experience. Early unemployment was related to age, sex, previous employment experience, and inversely to grade point average. Patterns of occupational change were linked to sex, major, internships, and grade point average. Educational outcome was related to age, sex, major, grade point average, and first year employment outcome.     

Early employment situations and work role satisfaction among recent college graduates

This study examined work role satisfaction as related to employment outcome among recipients of a liberal arts BA at a state university, 1 year (N = 218) and 3 years (N = 156) after graduation. A measure of work role satisfaction was developed and described. The relationship of work role satisfaction to work situation variables and to sex of the respondent was examined, using cross-tabular analysis, analysis of variance, and t tests, to assess shifts in satisfaction over time. Job Fit Index (a measure of underemployment), income, and job stability were all related to satisfaction. Findings suggested that priorities may change over time. Changes in Job Fit Index scores were related to changing levels of satisfaction, and interpretations suggested.     

The role of need level and/or need salience as moderators of the relationship between need satisfaction and work alienation-involvement

Contrary to previous findings documenting the importance of higher-order need satisfaction, a recent study by G. J. Gorn and R. N. Kanungo (Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1980, 26, 265–277) has indicated that satisfaction of lower-order needs may lead to job involvement if such needs are salient. Data from a heterogeneous sample of 632 employees from six organizations were used to test six hypotheses concerning the effects of need level (higher vs lower order) and need salience as moderators of the relationship between need satisfaction and alienation-involvement. Three different ways of operationalizing need saliency were used, including a replication of Gorn and Kanungo's procedure. Higherorder need satisfaction was correlated with alienation-involvement scores to a significantly greater degree than was lower-order need satisfaction, even for those for whom lower-order needs were most salient. Need saliency was not found to moderate the need satisfaction-involvement relationship when need level was controlled. Issues regarding the operationalization of “need salience” were discussed and a new measure of alienation-involvement (the A-I Scale) was introduced. Implications for further empirical investigations of the need saliency issue were noted, as was the universal application of job enrichment programs aimed at promoting higher-order need satisfaction.     

Inconsistent discipline of aggression in young boys

Two studies assessed the effects of interagent, inconsistent discipline on aggression in young boys. One agent responded to hitting behavior with verbal disapproval while another agent responded with verbal approval. In Experiment 1, the frequencies of hitting responses of first- and second-grade boys were examined under four schedules of adult reactions: (1) consistent disapproval; (2) consistent ignoring: (3) consistent approval; and (4) inconsistent discipline (approval from one agent and disapproval from the other). Aggressive responding was least frequent when met with consistent disapproval whereas the frequency of hitting responses in the inconsistent discipline condition was not different than that in the consistent approval and ignore conditions. In Experiment 2, the frequencies of hitting responses were examined under a schedule of consistent disapproval following a brief schedule of either: (1) inconsistent discipline; (2) consistent approval; or (3) consistent ignoring. Hitting behavior during consistent disapproval was greatest following a period of inconsistent discipline and least frequent following a history of consistent ignoring. These findings replicate the results of correlational field studies of the relation between inconsistent discipline and aggression in boys. In addition, these experimental studies demonstrate a causal link and the direction of effects between these variables.     

Performance of an unpleasant task: Effects of over- vs under-payment on perception of adequacy of rewards and task attractiveness

Subjects who came to an experiment expecting to receive a moderate amount of money for performing a task were then told, either before or after performing it, that their pay would be higher than, equal to, or less than they had expected. When the actual payment was announced after the task was performed, subjects' evaluations of the task increased with the amount they were paid; however, they estimated a higher rate of pay to be appropriate if they received either more or less than they expected than if they received what they expected. When the actual payment was announced before the task was performed (and before subjects made their decision to perform it), a different pattern emerged. Subjects rated the task more attractive when they were offered either more or less than the expected amount, while their judgments of the appropriateness of the pay offered increased with the amount of the offer. Implications of the results for incentive and dissonance theories as well as self-perception and equity theories are discussed.     

Behavioral treatment of thunder and lightning phobias.

The use of four different behavioral techniques in the treatment of six female clients with thunder and lightning phobia is described. The techniques (Systematic desensitization. Covert reinforcement. Stress inoculation training, and Self administered desensitization with tape recorder) were evaluated in single-case experimental designs, using both self-report, behavioral, and physiological data.The immediate and follow-up results showed that five of the clients were completely recovered and the sixth markedly improved after their respective treatment (10–14 session). These results and the questions concerning continuous assessment in single-case design and external validity of laboratory assessment in phobic conditions are discussed.