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161.
Human adults are adept at mitigating the influence of sensory uncertainty on task performance by integrating sensory cues with learned prior information, in a Bayes‐optimal fashion. Previous research has shown that young children and infants are sensitive to environmental regularities, and that the ability to learn and use such regularities is involved in the development of several cognitive abilities. However, it has also been reported that children younger than 8 do not combine simultaneously available sensory cues in a Bayes‐optimal fashion. Thus, it remains unclear whether, and by what age, children can combine sensory cues with learned regularities in an adult manner. Here, we examine the performance of 6‐ to 7‐year‐old children when tasked with localizing a ‘hidden’ target by combining uncertain sensory information with prior information learned over repeated exposure to the task. We demonstrate that 6‐ to 7‐year‐olds learn task‐relevant statistics at a rate on par with adults, and like adults, are capable of integrating learned regularities with sensory information in a statistically efficient manner. We also show that variables such as task complexity can influence young children's behavior to a greater extent than that of adults, leading their behavior to look sub‐optimal. Our findings have important implications for how we should interpret failures in young children's ability to carry out sophisticated computations. These ‘failures’ need not be attributed to deficits in the fundamental computational capacity available to children early in development, but rather to ancillary immaturities in general cognitive abilities that mask the operation of these computations in specific situations. 相似文献
162.
163.
In this paper we examine theoretical utility arguments in metaphysics. While philosophers claim a procedural continuity with science when using such arguments, we argue that examining famous instances from the history of science expose their fundamental flaws. We find that arguments from theoretical utility invoke considerations that are not truth conducive and that justifications for claims that a theory possesses theoretical virtues often assume the truth of the theory such virtues are supposed to support. We conclude that theoretical utility arguments provide no epistemic grounds for metaphysical inquiry. 相似文献
164.
Causal queries about singular cases, which inquire whether specific events were causally connected, are prevalent in daily life and important in professional disciplines such as the law, medicine, or engineering. Because causal links cannot be directly observed, singular causation judgments require an assessment of whether a co-occurrence of two events c and e was causal or simply coincidental. How can this decision be made? Building on previous work by Cheng and Novick (2005) and Stephan and Waldmann (2018), we propose a computational model that combines information about the causal strengths of the potential causes with information about their temporal relations to derive answers to singular causation queries. The relative causal strengths of the potential cause factors are relevant because weak causes are more likely to fail to generate effects than strong causes. But even a strong cause factor does not necessarily need to be causal in a singular case because it could have been preempted by an alternative cause. We here show how information about causal strength and about two different temporal parameters, the potential causes' onset times and their causal latencies, can be formalized and integrated into a computational account of singular causation. Four experiments are presented in which we tested the validity of the model. The results showed that people integrate the different types of information as predicted by the new model. 相似文献
165.
James B. Freeman 《Argumentation》2001,15(4):397-423
Many in the informal logic tradition distinguish convergent from linked argument structure. The pragma-dialectical tradition distinguishes multiple from co-ordinatively compound argumentation. Although these two distinctions may appear to coincide, constituting only a terminological difference, we argue that they are distinct, indeed expressing different disciplinary perspectives on argumentation. From a logical point of view, where the primary evaluative issue concerns sufficient strength of support, the unit of analysis is the individual argument, the particular premises put forward to support a given conclusion. Structure is internal to this unit. From a dialectical point of view, where the focus concerns how well a critical discussion comes to a reasoned conclusion of some disputed question, the argumentation need not constitute a single unit of argument. The unit of dialectical analysis will be the entire argumentation made up of these several arguments. The multiple/co-ordinatively compound distinction is dialectical, while the linked/convergent distinction is logical. Keeping these two pairs of distinctions separate allows us to see certain attempts to characterize convergent versus linked arguments as rather characterizing multiple versus co-ordinatively compound arguments, in particular attempts of Thomas, Nolt, and Yanal, and to resolve straightforwardly conflicts, tensions, or anomalies in their accounts. Walton's preferred Suspension/Insufficient Proof test to identify linked argument structure correctly identifies co-ordinatively compound structure. His objection to using the concept of relevance to explicate the distinction between linked and convergent structure within co-ordinatively compound argumentation can be met through explicating relevance in terms of inference licenses. His counterexample to the Suspension/No Support test for identifying linked structure which this approach supports can itself be straightforwardly dealt with when the test is explicated through inference licenses. 相似文献
166.
In this paper we study in details a system of two weakly coupled harmonic oscillators from the point of view of Bohm’s interpretation
of quantum mechanics. This system may be viewed as a simple model for the interaction between a photon and a photodetector.
We obtain exact solutions for the general case. We then compute approximate solutions for the case where one oscillator is
initially in its first excited state (a single photon) reaching the other oscillator in its ground state (the photodetector).
The approximate solutions represent the state of both oscillators after the interaction, which is not an eigenstate of the
individual hamiltonians for each oscillator, and therefore the energies for each oscillator do not exist in the Copenhagen
interpretation of Quantum Mechanics. We use the approximate solutions that we obtained to compute Bohmian trajectories and
to study the energy transfer between the oscillators. We conclude that, even using the Bohmian view, the energy of each individual
oscillator is not well defined, as the nonlocal quantum potential is not negligible even after the coupling is turned off. 相似文献
167.
Patrice Philie 《Philosophical Studies》2007,134(2):183-210
On an internalist account of logical inference, we are warranted in drawing conclusions from accepted premises on the basis
of our knowledge of logical laws. Lewis Carroll’s regress challenges internalism by purporting to show that this kind of warrant
cannot ground the move from premises to conclusion. Carroll’s regress vindicates a repudiation of internalism and leads to
the espousal of a standpoint that regards our inferential practice as not being grounded on our knowledge of logical laws.
Such a standpoint can take two forms. One can adopt either a broadly externalist model of inference or a sceptical stance.
I will attempt, in what follows, to defend a version of internalism which is not affected by the regress. The main strategy
will be to show that externalism and scepticism are not satisfying standpoints to adopt with regard to our inferential practice,
and then to suggest an internalist alternative. 相似文献
168.
Structural equations and causation 总被引:2,自引:2,他引:0
N. Hall 《Philosophical Studies》2007,132(1):109-136
Structural equations have become increasingly popular in recent years as tools for understanding causation. But standard structural
equations approaches to causation face deep problems. The most philosophically interesting of these consists in their failure
to incorporate a distinction between default states of an object or system, and deviations therefrom. Exploring this problem,
and how to fix it, helps to illuminate the central role this distinction plays in our causal thinking.
相似文献
N. HallEmail: |
169.
Takahiro Hoshino 《Psychometrika》2007,72(4):535-549
Due to the difficulty in achieving a random assignment, a quasi-experimental or observational study design is frequently used
in the behavioral and social sciences. If a nonrandom assignment depends on the covariates, multiple group structural equation
modeling, that includes the regression function of the dependent variables on the covariates that determine the assignment,
can provide reasonable estimates under the condition of correct specification of the regression function. However, it is usually
difficult to specify the correct regression function because the dimensions of the dependent variables and covariates are
typically large. Therefore, the propensity score adjustment methods have been proposed, since they do not require the specification
of the regression function and have been applied to several applied studies. However, these methods produce biased estimates
if the assignment mechanism is incorrectly specified. In order to make a more robust inference, it would be more useful to
develop an estimation method that integrates the regression approach with the propensity score methodology. In this study
we propose a doubly robust-type estimation method for marginal multiple group structural equation modeling. This method provides a consistent estimator
if either the regression function or the assignment mechanism is correctly specified. A simulation study indicates that the
proposed estimation method is more robust than the existing methods.
This research was partially supported by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists
(B), 187-30406. 相似文献
170.
Dale Jacquette 《Argumentation》2007,21(4):335-347
This essay proposes and defends a general thesis concerning the nature of fallacies of reasoning. These in distinctive ways
are all said to be deductively invalid. More importantly, the most accurate, complete and charitable reconstructions of these
species and specimens of the informal fallacies are instructive with respect to the individual character of each distinct
informal fallacy. Reconstructions of the fallacies as deductive invalidities are possible in every case, if deductivism is
true, which means that in every case they should be formalizable in an expressively comprehensive formal symbolic deductive
logic. The general thesis is illustrated by a detailed examination of Walter Burleigh's paradox in his c. 1323 work, De Puritate Artis Logicae Tractatus Longior (Longer Treatise on the Purity of Logic), as a challenge to the deductive validity of hypothetical syllogism. The paradox has the form, ‹If I call you a swine, then
I call you an animal; if I call you an animal, then I speak truly; therefore, if I call you a swine, then I speak truly'.
Several solutions to the problem are considered, and the inference is exposed as an instance of the common deductive fallacy
of equivocation. 相似文献