Natural, unnatural, and supernatural concepts

Five experiments investigating information-processing consequences of concept naturalness and unnaturalness are reported. In particular, an attempt is made to examine the separate and joint effects of simplicity and entrenchment upon reasoning with natural and unnatural concepts. The experiments employed four variants of a concept-selection task in which subjects characterized the state of an object at some future time on the basis of information about the object at that time and at some earlier time. In all five experiments, both simplicity and entrenchment affected ease of information processing. The last two experiments showed that the effect of simplicity was greater than that of entrenchment. An informationprocessing model of task performance provided a very good account of the latency and error data. Scores from the concept-selection task correlated with scores from a set of psychometric inductive-reasoning tests; indeed, the correlations were higher than those usually found between cognitive task performance and psychometrically measured intelligence. Processing of nonentrenched concepts may provide a useful means for studying the nature of intelligent performance.     

The development of analogical reasoning processes.

Two experiments were conducted to test the generalizability to children of a theory of analogical reasoning processes originally proposed for adults (R. J. Sternberg, Psychological Review, 1977a, 84, 353–378; R. J. Sternberg, Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning: The componential analysis of human abilities, Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1977b) and to examine the development of analogical reasoning processes in terms of five proposed sources of cognitive development: (a) availability of component operations; (b) strategy for combining multiple component operation; (c) strategy for combining multiple executions of the same component operation; (d) consistency in use of strategy; (e) component-operation latency and difficulty. Between 15 and 21 subjects in each of grades 2, 4, 6, and adulthood (ages 8, 10, 12, and 19 years, respectively) were tested in their ability to solve analogies of systematically varied difficulty. Performance was measured in terms of latencies for items solved correctly, latencies for all items solved, and error rates. A slightly modified version of the Stenberg, 1977(a), Stenberg, 1977(b) theory was found to be applicable to the data for each of the age levels tested. In analogies with perceptually separable attributes, change over age was found in sources (d) and (e) noted above. In analogies with perceptually integral attributes, change over age was found in sources (a), (c), (d), and (e). Developmental trends were discussed in terms of past theory and findings, and possible reasons for differences in developmental patterns between the two kinds of analogies were suggested.     

Cognitive style and recognition memory in young adults

Differences between impulsive and reflective subjects may be related to the amount of information processed in a given task. This possibility was tested in a visual-verbal probe recognition task. Twenty-three impulsive and 23 reflective adults subjects were divided into experimental and control groups. Experimental subjects were briefly exposed to a complex stimulus, whereas control subjects were given a comparable exposure to a different stimulus. Subjects were asked to choose between equal number of positives (stimulus-relevant) and negative probe items. A comparison of areas under memory operating characteristic curves for experimental subjects indicated that the recognition threshold for positive probes for impulsive subjects was significantly lower than the threshold for reflective subjects. The difference between subjective likelihood criteria was not significant. Also, accuracy of experimental subjects was significantly greater than that of control subjects. Differences in information availability were thought to be indicative of differences in selective attention processes.     

A Meta-Analysis of Structural and Functional Brain Imaging in Dementia of the Alzheimer's Type: A Neuroimaging Profile

We conducted a quantitative review of the imaging literature using meta-analytic methodology to characterize further the magnitude of hippocampal deficit in probable Alzheimer's disease (AD) and to determine whether other neuroanatomic structures in AD can better discriminate the disease from normal aging. Additionally, we parceled the discriminability of neuroanatomic structures by duration of disease to determine those structures most sensitive to AD in its early and late stages. One hundred twenty-one studies published between 1984 and 2000 met criteria for inclusion in the present analysis. In total, structural (i.e., CT and MRI) and functional (i.e., SPECT and PET) neuroimaging results from 3511 patients with AD, and 1632 normal healthy controls were recorded across meta-analyses. Our results include neuroimaging profiles for both early onset and longer duration patients with AD. In sum, these profiles yield a signature of diagnostic markers in both cortical and subcortical neuroanatomic areas. This signature is consistent with the clinical phenomenology of Alzheimer's dementia and should aid in the positive identification of AD.     

Extreme Nonresponse to Acute Phase Cognitive Therapy for Depression: An Attempt to Replicate and Extend

As with other interventions for major depressive disorder (MDD), cognitive therapy (CT) results in treatment failure for about half of all participants. In 2007, Coffman and colleagues in Seattle studied this topic by identifying a group of patients who demonstrated an extremely poor response to CT (i.e., posttreatment BDI score ≥ 31). They called these patients “extreme nonresponders” (ENR) and described the pretreatment characteristics that predicted response status.     

Self- and other regulation during the infancy period

The “other regulation” views of Lev Vygotsky and of Jerome Bruner are contrasted with Jean Piaget's self-regulatory model of infant development. Examples of adult behavior in Piaget's writings and in mother-infant interactions suggest that adults perform behaviors which are analogous to Piaget's type a and b self-regulation. Data from infant games are provided to illustrate the processes by which mothers regulate the environments for their infants and the consequences of such maternal regulation for infant development.     

Early experience,relative plasticity,and social development

This paper examines the roles of early experience and relative plasticity in the development of social behavior in animals and humans. It is concluded that (1) long-term effects of early experience variables can be found in the animal and human literature; (2) there are age differences in the relative susceptibility to environmental influences during development; and (3) the power of environmental events and the buffering ability of the organism are crucial variables affecting the outcome of organism-environment interactions.     

Sequencing in social repair: A Markov grammar of children's discourse about transgressions

A Markov grammar was developed to account for the sequence of conversational moves in discourse about transgressions. This discourse interrupts ongoing activity and functions to repair the social fabric when inappropriate or awkward behavior has attracted the attention of interactants. A corpus of 1248 such interchanges, obtained in 90 hr of observation in kindergarten through fourth grade classrooms, was the basis of the grammar. Beginning with theoretical assumptions about the canonical form of these interchanges, the process of grammar development was explicitly described and the direction given by pragmatic considerations (such as attaining a balance between parsimony and accuracy) was discussed. The resultant grammar accounted for 83% of the corpus and served as a framework within which age and context effects on the discourse were explored. Loglinear analyses of multiway contingency tables at each transition point in the grammar revealed that the presence vs absence of an adult in the interchange affected the relative preferences for different alternatives at one juncture, but that subjects' ages did not influence the sequencing of discourse as described by the model. The overall approach was considered in relation to the more traditional uses of Markov models and its strengths, weaknesses, and future promise for discourse analysis were discussed.