Structures and strictures: Some functional limitations on the course of cognitive growth

A functional (as opposed to structural) theory of intellectual development is presented, and used to generate specific performance models for Piagetian tasks involving the control of variables. On the basis of these models, it is concluded that intelligent, field independent 7- and 8-year-olds should be able to acquire the control of variables scheme, even though they have not yet acquired either conservation of weight or the combinatorial system. Preliminary data (n = 52) are presented to support this conclusion. They are discussed with regard to Piaget's formal theory of intellectual development, and the functional limitations of development on learning.     

Analysis of memory codes and cumulative rehearsal in observational learning

The present study examined the influence of memory codes varying in meaningfulness and retrievability and cumulative rehearsal on retention of observationally learned responses over increasing temporal intervals. Symbolic codes combining meaningfulness with retrievability produced superior memory performances, but responses were poorly retained in symbolic representations containing only one of these properties. Individual response analysis further confirmed that the more meaningful the codes incorporating retrieval guides the better are modeled responses learned and retained. Cumulative rehearsal had differential effects on memory performances depending upon the serial input position of the responses and the form into which the modeled behavior was encoded. Code rehearsals facilitated retention of early and intermediate responses which were repeated more than later ones, but this was true mainly for codes vulnerable to loss. The overall findings provide further corroborative evidence that memory performances are governed more by information coding than by associative strengthening processes.     

"Square-wave stimuli" and neonatal auditory behavior: some comments on Ashton (1971), Hutt el al. (1968) and Lenard et al. (1969)

Recent work reporting neonatal auditory responses to complex tones generated by applying electrical square-wave stimuli to loudspeakers is reviewed with reference to the nature of the acoustic stimulus. Attention is particularly drawn to the harmonic structure of such tones in relation to the nonlinear frequency response of small loudspeakers. A $\text{1}\text{3}\text{-}\text{octave}$ band analysis of some “square-wave tones” is given to illustrate the difficulties of interpreting the results of work using such complex stimuli. The findings of the previous studies are ascribed essentially to differences in the stimulus bandwidth, rather than to differences in audiofrequency, and difficulties apparently generated by using differences in stimulus bandwidth as the sole explanation are at least partially resolved.     

Selective responding to the components of multiple visual cues by autistic children

Fifteen autistic and 15 normal Ss were trained to respond to a card containing two visual cues. After this training disctimination was established, the children were tested on the single cues in order to assess whether one or both stimuli had acquired control over their responding. The autistic children (12 of 15) gave evidence for stimulus overselectivity in that they responded correctly to only one of the two component cues. On the other hand, the normal children (12 of 15) showed clear evidence of control by both component cues of the training card. These results were consistent with previous studies, where autistics showed overselectivity when presented with multiple sensory input in several modalities. However, now autistic children appear to have difficulty responding to multiple cues even when both cues are in the same modality. These results were discussed in relation to the experimental literature on selective attention in normally functioning organisms.     

When three is not always two against one: Coalitions in experimental three-person cooperative games

Four models of coalition formation are tested in a computer-controlled experiment in which three players negotiated to form coalitions in order to gain rewards for themselves. Formation of the grand coalition of all three players as well as any of the three possible 2-person coalitions is permitted. The results indicate that the grand coalition is the most likely to form, followed by the coalition between the two strongest players. The individually rational bargaining set model of coalition formation is supported over an egalitarian model, the Shapley value, and the coalitionally rational bargaining set model. Various measures of the progress of negotiations are introduced, examined, and discussed in an effort to provide an increased data base for the establishment of a behavioral theory of bargaining and coalition formation.     

Effects of metronome-conditioned relaxation,metronome-induced relaxation,and progressive muscle relaxation on insomnia

Although several controlled studies have indicated that relaxation can be effectively employed in the treatment of insomnia (Borkovec and Fowles, 1973; Steinmark and Borkovec. 1974; Haynes et al., 1974), the relaxation training procedures thus far utilized have typically necessitated several hours of therapist-client contact. The possibility of a more efficient relaxation procedure for treating insomniacs suggests an attractive alternative to the tense-relax instructions of progressive muscle relaxation (Jacobson, 1938). Brady (1973) has reported that the sound of a metronome set at 60 beats per min is inherently relaxing, and although he has only reported on the effects of the metronome when paired with verbally-induced relaxation (both general suggestions of relaxation and instructions to tense and relax successive muscle groups), he has successfully employed this technique in the treatment of borborygmi (rumbling noises in the abdomen) and essential hypertension (Brady, 1973; Brady, Luborsky and Kron, 1974). If the sound of the metronome alone, which would require minimal therapist-client contact, is sufficient to induce relaxation, the efficiency with which relaxation can be achieved in the treatment of insomnia, as well as other tension-related disorders. may be greatly enhanced.The present study was designed to assess the relaxation-inducing properties of (a) Brady's metronome-conditioned relaxation (metronome plus verbal relaxation instructions), (b) progressive muscle relaxation and (c) metronome-induced relaxation (the sound of a metronome alone) in the treatment of insomnia. In order to provide an evaluation of the effectiveness of relaxation techniques with a broader population than was sampled in previous investigations of this nature, this study included employed adults as well as college students in the subject pool. In addition to its implications for treating insomnia, this study was designed to yield an independent test of the hypothesis that a 60 beat per min metronome sound has the capacity by itself to induce relaxation.