Flexibility of information processing and the memory of field-independent and field-dependent learners

This study examined memory differences between 48 field-independent and 48 field-dependent learners, and it hypothesized that rigid information processing by field-dependent learners interferes with cue efficiency during memory recall. The field-independent and field-dependent learners were presented with paired associates in which the target recall words were homographs, and accompanying associates emphasized one of the homograph's two meanings. Homograph recall occurred under three conditions: (a) same cue recall, (b) different cue recall (emphasized other meaning of homograph), and (c) free recall. This study found memory differences favoring the field-independent learner and findings consistent with the rigid information processing hypothesis of field-dependent learners.     

Recognition memory retention interval and information load

Two experiments were conducted to study the effect of retention interval and information load on short-term recognition memory in retarded subjects. The task consisted of an input trial of 1–15 pictures followed by a test trial of one picture, with the subject having to press different levers to indicate whether the probe picture had been present on the input trial. Retention intervals between input trial and test trial were manipulated over a range of 1–24 sec. Both accuracy and latency of response were measured. Results showed that latency increased and accuracy decreased as a function of both retention interval and number of stimuli. In addition, number of stimuli interacted with retention interval such that accuracy was not affected by retention interval when information input was small, but decreased quite dramatically at longer retention intervals when input was larger. The results were discussed in terms of current memory search models for both normal and retarded subjects.     

When stereotypes hurt: Three studies of penalties for sex-role reversals

Three studies that demonstrate penalties for sex-role reversals are reported. In each study, subjects evaluated men and women who behaved either in line with sex-role stereotypes or counter to them. The results show that popularity ratings and perceived psychological adjustment of both passive-dependent men and aggressive-assertive women were adversely affected. The findings are discussed in terms of their contribution to recent theories about women's achievement motivation.     

The effects of a memory aid on three types of conservation judgments

Twelve boys and 12 girls at each of 3 ages (4, 5, and 6 years) were tested on three types of conservation judgments (qualitative, quantitative, and equivalence) on both continuous and discontinuous substances. Half of the subjects were provided a memory aid while the other half were not. Conservation ability was determined both with and without verbal justification. The memory aid increased the number of equivalence conservation responses only when verbal justification was not required. The number of subjects conserving on each of the three tasks varied as a function of the scoring criteria used. Type of materials, sex, and age effects were found. The role of transitive inferences and memory in the equivalence conservation task was discussed. Inconsistencies in previous research due to different scoring techniques were noted.     

A developmental study of choice reaction time: the effect of two forms of stimulus degradation on encoding.

To assess the effects of environmental enrichment, 156 normal, full-term institutionalized infants were randomly assigned to Group I (30 min per day of supplementary vestibular stimulation), Group II (30 min per day of supplementary vestibular-plus-verbal stimulation), or Group III (untreated controls). Stimulation began at about the age of 12 days and continued until the children were adopted, approximately 6 weeks later. Children were assessed at regular intervals on the Gesell Developmental Schedules, until the age of 27 months. Group comparisons revealed no significant treatment effects.     

Asymptotic reinforced responding as a function of the operant level of the instrumental response

The relationship between operant level (base rate) and asymptotic reinforced instrumental responding was investigated in several contingencies in which licking was contingent upon running, under different FR schedules. For Group I the relationship was examined by selecting rats who naturally differed in their running base rates and for which the licking base rates were equivalent. For Group II the relationship was examined by selecting rats with equivalent running and licking base rates, but whose running rates were eventually made to differ by manipulating wheel-torque requirements. Asymptotic reinforced instrumental responding was found to be linearly related to pre-contingent running base rates, for all FR schedules, and independent of the procedures used to obtain differing running base rates. The results support Premack's contention that asymptotic reinforced instrumental responding is a joint function of the reinforcing response and the operant level of the instrumental response.     

Belief similarity and attitude similarity as determinants of interpersonal attraction

It was predicted that attraction would be a function of both attitude similarity and belief similarity, but that attitude similarity would have the greater influence. In Expt I, 60 subjects were presented with strangers that were either similar or dissimilar on attitude and on belief. Attraction was a positive function of both attitude similarity (p < .05) and belief similarity (p < .01). Experiment II replicated and extended Expt I with the addition of a 50% similar group for both attitude and belief. Attraction was a positive linear function of both attitude similarity (p < .001) and belief similarity (p < .02); departure from linearity was not significant. Attitude similarity also had greater effects on other aspects of interpersonal evaluation than belief similarity. The results were discussed in terms of the locus of reinforcement of attitude similarity and of belief similarity.     

The effect of verbal reinforcement on career choice realism

Twenty-four male undergraduates viewed 102 slides containing occupational titles and stated whether or not each represented a realistic career choice. Each subject was given three trials, with the experimental subjects receiving positive verbal reinforcement on the second trial for realistic responses. (If the choice was congruous with the individual's occupational type, as determined by the Vocational Preference Inventory, it was scored as realistic.) The results of the research revealed a tendency for all subjects to increase in career choice realism as a function of participation in the experiment, with significantly (p < .05) more experimental subjects than control subjects demonstrating an operant pattern of responses. Implications of the findings for counselors were discussed.     

Environmental determinants of altruism: The effects of stimulus overload and perceived control on helping

In an experiment designed to measure the effects of stimulus overload on altruism, 60 female subjects were randomly assigned to three stimulus conditions of 20 subjects each: (1) overload, (2) overload with perceived control, and (3) no overload. Subjects performed simultaneous proofreading and number attention tasks while at the same time listening to distracting or nondistracting background sound, and one group believed they could have the sound turned off if they desired. Following task performance, all subjects received a request for a favor from an ostensibly unrelated confederate. Although all subjects performed the tasks about equally well regardless of stimulus condition, altruism increased significantly across the three conditions. Results were discussed in terms of stimulus overload associated with the urban environment.