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271.
Two interpretations of the equations used by B. Inhelder and J. Piaget in The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958) are discussed, with implication as the central example. The expression (p ? q) (p implies q) is said to be equal to (p · q) V (p · q) V (p · q) (i.e.,p and q, or not p and q, or neither p nor q). According to one, (p ? q) asserts the existence of each case mentioned. According to the other, (p ? q) only asserts that current knowledge allows the possibility of each of the cases. Neither interpretation makes sense of all the relevant passages. Both can be combined in a consistent interpretation when attention is paid to the functional context of the subject's use of logical operations in this book: the “operations” describe the knowledge states which the subject can differentiate and relate, on his way to solving Inhelder's tasks. The logical notation used to represent these states is not a representational format attributed to the subject and manipulated by his cognitive processes, but part of a structuralist account of the subject's reasoning capacities.  相似文献   
272.
The role of cognitive complexity in the career maturity of college students was investigated. Simple and multiple correlational analyses were performed upon data from 99 college students who were administered the Attitude Scale and Competence Test of the Career Maturity Inventory, the Bieri Repertory Test, and the Bodden Cognitive Differentiation Grid. Results generally supported the prediction that career maturity would be found to be positively associated with cognitive complexity.  相似文献   
273.
This study compared leisure activities with occupational membership as criteria for determining the concurrent validity of the Holland and Basic Interest scales of the Strong Vocational Interest Blank (Form T399). Subjects were 89 thirty-six-year-old males representing a variety of occupations. R. H. Dolliver's (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1975, 22, 199–203) two methods for assessing validity were used: highest single scores on relevant scales and scores above established cutoff points on relevant scales. Results indicated greater congruence between interest scales and occupations than interest scales and leisure activities, except when Basic Interest scale cutoff scores were used. After chance factors were taken into account, Holland scales were found to be more accurate than Basic Interest scales in identifying occupations and in identifying leisure activities when highest scale scores were used. Using cutoff scores, Basic Interest scales were more accurate than Holland scales in identifying leisure activities. Supplementary analyses indicated that the validity of the Holland and Basic Interest scales increases when they are presumed to reflect either current occupation or preferred leisure activity. Results of this study were compared with Dolliver's (1975) findings.  相似文献   
274.
Questionnaires that assessed educational goals, career goals, preferred and expected career commitment, sex-role attitudes, age, college class, height, and weight were completed by 884 male and female undergraduates representing two racial groups and two age groups. Age, size, and college class were unrelated to women's goals and attitudes, whereas men chose more traditional careers as their education progressed. Technical college students tended to be more traditional than university students. Implications for related research are discussed.  相似文献   
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277.
In three experiments, memory for intentionally encoded words was compared with memory for encodings induced by asking semantic, phonemic, or surface questions. Subjects were second-, fourth-, and sixth-grade, and junior and senior high school students. Semantic encodings were more often recalled and recognized than were phonemic and surface (which did not differ). Intentional encodings were as likely to be recalled as semantic but were no more likely than phonemic and surface to be recognized, and this was true whether intentional learning was in anticipation of a recall test or a recognition test. Age trends occurred for recall, for intentional learning, and for induced processing which required subjects to generate word attributes. Age trends were attenuated for recognition and for induced processing which required subjects to verify whether a give attribute applied to the target word.  相似文献   
278.
In two experiments, groups received successive large-reward trials on odd-numbered days and successive small-reward trials on even-numbered days in the same gray alleyway. This produced a discrimination problem in which the memory of large reward (SL) was reliably discriminative of large reward and the memory of small reward (SS) was reliably discriminative of small reward. Intertrial interval (ITI) was varied both between and within groups. In the within-groups manipulation, ITI separating S+ trials differed from that separating S- trials. Experimental groups learned the discrimination, running slower to SS (S- cue) than to SL (S+ cue), and showed a negative contrast effect, running slower to S- than a small-reward control group. Discrimination was somewhat faster at massed than at spaced trials. The within-groups manipulation of ITI suggested that the effects of ITI were mediated by time-dependent changes in internal cues produced by reward events and by the instrumental response. The control exercised by internal cues was shown to be associative rather than nonassociative, e.g., motivational. Similarities with, and implications for, conventional brightness differential conditioning were discussed.  相似文献   
279.
Four experiments assessed the role of response-reinforcement (R-S1) expectancy as rats either learned a discrimination or a discrimination reversal. Experiment 1 showed that the higher the percentage of reinforcement during nondiscriminative pretraining the more quickly a subsequent discrimination is learned. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the overlearning reversal effect (ORE) can be obtained even though the overtraining phase consists of responses to a single neutral card. In Experiment 3 subjects were again overtrained on a single neutral stimulus under conditions of varying reinforcement. ORE was apparent under reinforcement of a high percentage of responses but was not apparent under reinforcement of a low percentage. Experiment 4 revealed that the fewer errors a subject makes prior to reversal the better its reversal performance is. Results of these studies were discussed in terms of generalized attention theories and the expectancy notions of Bolles (Psychological Review, 1972, 79(5), 394–409.  相似文献   
280.
The rabbit's nictitating membrane response was classically conditioned to a serial tone-light compound (CS1-CS2), in which the CS1-CS2 and CS2-US intervals were each manipulated over the values of 200, 400, 800, and 1600 msec in a between-groups, factorial design. In addition, at each level of the CS2-US interval, there was a control group that received CS2 and the US. Within the serial compound, the CS2 was found to be highly efficacious in that the CS2-US interval determined the rate of CR acquisition to the compound as a whole and to CS2 in particular. Moreover, CR probability during CS2 largely overlapped the performance of the corresponding single-stimulus controls. Outside the context of the compound, CR frequency on CS2 test trials fell below control levels at the 200- and 400-msec CS2-US intervals. The results can be interpreted as indicating that a generalization decrement or information loss occurred in transferring from compound training to CS2 testing. In addition, the theories of Rescorla and Wagner (In A. Black & W. F. Prokasy, Eds., Classical conditioning II, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1972) and Mackintosh (Psychological Review, 1975, 82, 276–298) may be extended to account for the present results.  相似文献   
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