The effect of a low rate of regular signals upon the reaction times of introverts and extraverts

In an RT (reaction time) task involving responding to infrequent, regular signals, extraverts produced higher proportions of missed signals and lengthened RT's than introverts did. This result was only obtained after some time on task and is evidence that inhibitory states are formed more rapidly in extraverted subjects under low stimulation conditions. In a more extended version of the task, mean RT was found to be longer in extraverted than introverted subjects in the second half of the experiment though there was no significant difference between the groups in the first half. These findings are complementary to data from previous studies showing that extraverts generate stronger inhibitory potential in continuous responding tasks, or that their characteristic arousal level may be lower than that of introverted subjects. The need to distinguish between the different explanatory constructs is discussed and a simple model amalgamating the major theoretical positions is outlined.     

The motive to avoid success: A further examination

Horner's (1968) “fear of success” study was replicated and expanded. One hundred seventy-seven high school (HS) and college students wrote stories in response to the following cues: “After first-term finals, John (Anne) finds himself (herself) at the top of his (her) medical-school class.” Results indicated similarity of response of HS men, HS women, and college men, all of whom expressed more fear of success imagery in response to the Anne cue than to the John cue. College women did not conform to this pattern.     

Trait anxiety moderation of the effects of life stress on state anxiety

Many theories of anxiety have predicted and much previous research has indicated a person × situation interaction between stressors and trait anxiety. This study examined the hypothesized role of individual differences in trait anxiety in the relationship between naturally occurring stressors and state anxiety scores. Two hundred eighty-seven college undergraduates completed the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, which provides both state and trait anxiety measures, and the Life Experiences Survey, which provides a measure of the amount of stress a person has undergone in the previous year. Trait anxiety scores were divided into quartiles and correlations between state anxiety scores and Life Experiences Survey scores and multiple regressions for trait anxiety and life stress to predict state anxiety were computed within each quartile. The results were that only in the first quartile was there a significant correlation between life stress and state anxiety, which was contrary to the predictions of state-trait anxiety theory. The validity of state-trait anxiety theory, as it relates to life stress, was questioned.     

Predicting state anxiety: A comparison of multidimensional and unidimensional trait approaches

Endler has proposed that trait anxiety is multidimensional, with individual differences varying across several dimensions of stressing situations. Despite empirical support for the independence of some dimensions, some researchers have employed a single score on a multidimensional measure of trait anxiety, summed from the dimension scale scores, as a singular measure of generalized trait anxiety. This violates the theoretical underpinnings of the approach. This study examined whether a total score on a multidimensional measure of trait anxiety could supplement the ability of individual dimension scale scores in predicting state anxiety responses to dimension-congruent stress. Thirty-two female college students who scored at differing levels of dimensional and general anxiety were required to perform two laboratory stress tasks under conditions of stress representing different dimensions of trait anxiety. The results provide support for a multidimensional approach to general trait anxiety but indicate some value of a total score in supplementing predictions based on individual scale scores. The data provide a cautionary note that a total score on a multidimensional measure is of little value unless full consideration is given to the profile of dimension scale scores.     

Learning from negative outcomes in stuttering therapy: II. An epiphany of failures

Proceeding on the premise that learning advances on the feet of failure, a litany of therapeutic failures with stutterers across 3 decades is recounted. The basis for these failures included the assumptions that stuttering is a neurotic symptom; that “lucky fluency” can be maintained permanently; that a fluent drone is preferable to stuttering; that controlled fluency, once established, can be maintained permanently; that a proper task for clinicians is to motivate clients to achieve and preserve fluency; that the clinician has the responsibility for marching clients through their therapeutic paces; and that stuttering is punishing to the stutterer, so it is not preserved by reinforcement. Unfortunately, more has probably been learned about what does not work than what does.     

The early history of behavior modification of stuttering: A view from the trenches

The attitudes of 644 employers toward stuttering were studied through the use of a questionnaire which required the respondents to indicate their strenght-of- agreement to seven attitudinal statements concerning stuttering. While rejecting the suggestion that stuttering interferes with job performance, the employers agreed that stuttering decreases employability and interferes with promotion possibilities. It was concluded that although stuttering may not typically interfere with job performance, it is a significant vocationally handicapping problem.     

A comparison of error based and time based learning measures as predictors of general intelligence

Two methodological issues involved in determining the relationship between learning and general intelligence (g) are examined. They are firstly, the use of subject learning strategies in a paired-associated learning task and secondly the importance of time in the measurement of learning efficiency. Concerning the first issue, paired-associates learning scores of subjects who were instructed in the use of an appropriate learning strategy correlated significantly with general intelligence scores while those not so instructed did not. Concerning the second issue, a time based learning measure was developed to predice the time required for complete learning in the paired-associates learning task. This measure was compared learning with a number of error-based learning measures in their ability to predict general intelligence. The time based learning measure was clearly superior to the error based measures yielding a correlation of .59 with general intelligence.     

Measures of timed performance and intelligence

The question of an association between IQ and measures of timed performance derived from inspection time and reaction time was examined in a sample of 182 adults and by reanalyzing data involving 48 adults from a previously published study. Multiple regression analysis found that measures of timed performance accounted for as much as 25% of IQ variance in the normal population, but that the inclusion of borderline and mildly retarded subjects resulted in much higher correlation coefficients because of the markedly less efficient performance of these persons in tasks of this kind. This outcome raised doubts about the validity of combining data from retarded and nonretarded subjects. Results ran counter to claims that tasks of the kind used are largely uninfluenced by cognitive variables, so that findings are not necessarily explained satisfactorily in terms of a mental speed factor. It was concluded that these measures of timed performance do not, at this time, provide a basis from which a reliable culture-fair measure of intelligence might be devised.