Ethical and Philosophical Consideration of the Dual-use Dilemma in the Biological Sciences

The dual-use dilemma arises in the context of research in the biological and other sciences as a consequence of the fact that one and the same piece of scientific research sometimes has the potential to be used for bad as well as good purposes. It is an ethical dilemma since it is about promoting good in the context of the potential for also causing harm, e.g., the promotion of health in the context of providing the wherewithal for the killing of innocents. It is an ethical dilemma for the researcher because of the potential actions of others, e.g., malevolent non-researchers who might steal dangerous biological agents, or make use of the original researcher's work. And it is a dilemma for governments concerned with the security of their citizens, as well as their health. In this article we construct a taxonomy of types of "experiments of concern" in the biological sciences, and thereby map the terrain of ethical risk. We then provide a series of analyses of the ethical problems and considerations at issue in the dual-use dilemma, including the impermissibility of certain kinds of research and possible restrictions on dissemination of research results given the risks to health and security. Finally, we explore the main available institutional responses to some of the specific ethical problems posed by the dual-use dilemma in the biological sciences.     

Different types—Different rights

Drawing on a social construction theory of ownership in biological material this paper discusses which differences in biological material might motivate differences in treatment and ownership rights. The analysis covers both the perspective of the person from whom the material originates and that of the potential recipient. Seven components of bundles of rights, drawing on the analytical tradition of Tony Honoré, and their relationship to various types of biological material are investigated. To exemplify these categories the cases of a heart, a kidney, stem cells and hair are used.     

An evaluation of matrix training to teach college students piano notes and rhythms

Twelve college students learned to tact the names of notes and rhythms and play them when presented with compound stimuli (visuals of notes and rhythms on a musical staff). In Experiment 1, we assessed generalization by presenting novel notes, rhythms, and compound stimuli not previously paired together. In the second experiment, we added a metronome that played at 60 beats per minute in all conditions for 3 out of 6 participants to ensure consistent tempo. Across both experiments, participants passed almost all posttests with the exception of tacting and playing in the presence of sound clips. Our data suggest that matrix training is an effective procedure to teach music skills to college students.     

Empirical evaluation of the uncanny valley hypothesis fails to confirm the predicted effect of motion

The uncanny valley hypothesis states that the acceptability of an artificial character will not increase linearly in relation to its likeness to human form. Instead, after an initial rise in acceptability there will be a pronounced decrease when the character is similar, but not identical to human form (Mori, 1970/2012). Moreover, it has been claimed but never directly tested that movement would accentuate this dip and make moving characters less acceptable. We used a number of full-body animated computer characters along with a parametrically defined motion set to examine the effect of motion quality on the uncanny valley. We found that improving the motion quality systematically improved the acceptability of the characters. In particular, the character classified in the deepest location of the uncanny valley became more acceptable when it was animated. Our results showed that although an uncanny valley was found for static characters, the deepening of the valley with motion, originally predicted by Mori (1970/2012), was not obtained.     

Delayed Sleep Timing in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Is Associated With Diminished Response to Exposure and Ritual Prevention

Exposure and ritual prevention (ERP) and pharmacotherapy are typically associated with significant symptom reductions for individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). However, many patients are left with residual symptoms and other patients do not respond. There is increasing evidence that delays in sleep timing/circadian rhythms are associated with OCD but the potential effects of delays in sleep timing on ERP warrant attention. This paper presents data from 31 outpatients with OCD who participated in ERP. Results showed that delayed sleep timing was common and that individuals with delayed bedtimes benefited significantly less from treatment and were significantly more likely to be nonresponders compared to individuals with earlier bedtimes. Further, the effects of sleep timing remained statistically significant even after controlling for global sleep quality, negative affect, and several other variables. These findings add to a growing literature suggesting the utility of better understanding the role of disruptions in the timing of sleep in OCD.     

A Unifying Principle Of Biological And Cultural Evolution And Its Implications For The Future

In this article I analyze a regular pattern in the developmental and evolutionary processes, formed by a gradual shortening of developmental stages. This shortening is the expected result of a selection process, in the biological as well as in the cultural evolutionary process. Biology and culture are in this way unified by a common mechanism. A mathematical analysis further indicates a vital condition for a continued progress of human culture, especially for a continued progressive scientific evolution, implying continued shortening of mental developmental stages by means of enhanced education.     

On the depth reversibility of point-light actions

We investigate the occurrence of perspective reversals for a depth-ambiguous point-light figure. In addition, we exploit the phenomenon of reversibility to search for stimulus features relevant in the process of depth assignment. Experiment 1 shows that perceptual switches indeed occur during prolonged viewing, although the switches occur infrequently. The reversibility is confirmed in Experiment 2, in which the perceptual ambiguity of the point-light action is manipulated as well as observers’ intention to perceive a particular alternative. In addition, the pattern of eye movements reveals local stimulus features specifically associated with the perception of the different alternatives. In Experiment 3, the importance of these features as determining factors of the initial interpretation is investigated by manipulating the location of the first fixation on the stimulus. Implications for a better understanding of biological motion perception are discussed.     

The rehabilitation of primary object relations in the first year of intensive therapy with a severely deprived child

The following is an account of the first year of a therapy carried out in the public sector of a child born at the beginning of 1990 in an eastern European country and brought up in a home for abandoned children until he was placed with Italian parents at the end of 1995. I shall describe the child's initial psychological state, vigorous, but desperate, and then go on to describe the course of the first year of therapy, focusing in particular on the sessions of the from period, in which, apart from the quality and intensity of his anxiety, his need to fie this anxiety by retracing the stages of his first object experiences is clear.     

Children's justifications of plants as living things between 5 and 7 years of age

Children do not recognize plants as living things before the age of 6. In order to consider plants as part of the biological domain, children have to inhibit motion as a mandatory characteristic of life and consider other properties as well. We designed a special animated task to help us study how children's explanations about plants change during preschool. This task contained pairs of items, with unexpectedly moving plants being contrasted with motionless animals and artefacts. Children were requested to compare these pairs and to answer “why” questions. Participants were 60 typically developing children aged 5, 6 and 7. Mention of the unexpected motion of plants increased with age, while biological justifications tended to be more frequent in older children for animals only. Functional justifications were hardly ever provided and only for plant–artefact pairs. These findings contribute to a better understanding of young children's conceptions of plants.