观察因果学习和自主探索对学前儿童因果推理的影响

本研究采取单因素完全随机实验设计,以94名学前末期儿童(66-74月龄)为被试,在控制证据顺序的条件下探究观察因果学习结果和自主探索结果对儿童因果推理的影响,结果发现:(1)在只获得观察学习结果或自主探索结果一种证据条件下,绝大多数儿童依据所获证据推断因果关系;(2)在获得观察学习结果和自主探索结果两种证据条件下,儿童能综合两类证据推断因果关系,其中自主探索结果对儿童因果推理的影响力大于观察学习结果。     

Human walk-to-run transition in the context of the behaviour of complex systems

This study had two main aims: 1) to investigate if the walk-to-run (WR-) transition occurs when the speed of locomotion is kept constant below the WR-transition speed (speed clamp) and the stride rate is increased monotonously using a metronome and 2) to investigate if diversion of attention and awareness from the locomotion process influences the position of the WR-transition in stride rate, stride length, and locomotion speed (SrSlLs) space.Eighteen healthy individuals (13 men and 5 women) were recruited (age: 23.9 ± 1.5 years, height: 1.77 ± 0.10 m and body mass: 77.3 ± 12.8 kg). Stride-by-stride stride rates, stride lengths, locomotion speeds, and duty factors were determined on a treadmill in 4 different tests: 1) reference WR-transition, 2) preferred walking speed, 3) dual-task test including arithmetic calculations and 4) four speed clamp bouts with different initial velocities.Walk-to-run transitions were elicited in all participants in the speed clamp bouts. When the stride rate ramp was clamped at preferred walking speed the WR-transition stride rate was not significantly different from the WR-transition stride rate during the reference test (t = 2.2, p = 0.312). However, in the SrSlLs space the speed clamp WR-transitions all deviated from the position of the reference WR-transition. Additionally, it was demonstrated that intensive attentional diversion using a dual-task paradigm had very little influence on the position of the WR-transition in the SrSlLs space.It is argued that these observations can be explained in the context of the behavior of complex systems.     

Spatial learning in pigs: effects of environmental enrichment and individual characteristics on behaviour and performance

This study investigated the effects of both environmental enrichment and individual behavioural characteristics on spatial cognitive capabilities of pigs, using a novel latent spatial learning paradigm based on Tolman’s detour experiments (1948). Pigs were housed either in ‘barren’ pens or in pens enriched with straw bedding from birth. Pigs were restrained in a Backtest at 10 and 17 days postpartum. Based on their escape behaviour in this test, which has been shown to reflect their behavioural style, six ‘high-resisting’(HR) and six ‘low-resisting’ (LR) pigs were selected from each housing environment (n = 24 in total). At 12 weeks of age, pairs of pen mates (LR and HR) were exposed to a maze three times (exploration trials). Pigs were then placed individually in the maze, and social reinstatement proved to be a strong incentive to find the exit leading to the home pen. We subsequently blocked the direct route to the exit, forcing animals to find a detour (memory test 1, MT1). This test was repeated once to investigate the relative improvement, i.e. detour learning (memory test 2, MT2). Housing condition and Backtest response strongly affected exploration patterns. In spite of this, no effects on performance during the subsequent memory tests were found. Performance was substantially improved in MT2, indicating that once a goal is apparent, pigs are able to solve a complex spatial memory task easily. In conclusion, social reinstatement provided a good incentive to complete a spatial task, and the substantial improvement in performance between MT1 and MT2 stresses the need for task complexity when testing spatial memory in pigs. Housing conditions or individual behavioural style did not affect spatial memory during MT1 or MT2. However, housing environment and behavioural style strongly affected explorative behaviour of pigs in an unfamiliar maze during both exploration trials and memory tests. This implicates that apparent effects of environmental enrichment on spatial learning and memory in pigs might reflect differences in explorative patterns rather than in cognitive processes.     

Solution Strategies and Achievement in Dutch Complex Arithmetic: Latent Variable Modeling of Change

In the Netherlands, national assessments at the end of primary school (Grade 6) show a decline of achievement on problems of complex or written arithmetic over the last two decades. The present study aims at contributing to an explanation of the large achievement decrease on complex division, by investigating the strategies students used in solving the division problems in the two most recent assessments carried out in 1997 and in 2004. The students’ strategies were classified into four categories. A data set resulted with two types of repeated observations within students: the nominal strategies and the dichotomous achievement scores (correct/incorrect) on the items administered.It is argued that latent variable modeling methodology is appropriate to analyze these data. First, latent class analyses with year of assessment as a covariate were carried out on the multivariate nominal strategy variables. Results showed a shift from application of the traditional long division algorithm in 1997, to the less accurate strategy of stating an answer without writing down any notes or calculations in 2004, especially for boys. Second, explanatory IRT analyses showed that the three main strategies were significantly less accurate in 2004 than they were in 1997.     

Emotional reactivity and self-regulation in relation to personality disorders

Associations of both reactive and regulative temperamental features with personality disorders (PDs) are investigated in a sample of 162 normal controls and 89 psychiatric inpatients. Reactive and regulative temperamental features were assessed by means of the BIS/BAS Scales and the Attentional Control Scale. Dimensional PD scores were obtained by using the ADP-IV. All PDs were characterized by low levels of effortful control, cluster C PDs by high BIS and cluster B PDs by high BAS. For several PDs, BIS and effortful control interacted: BIS was only related to severe PD pathology if effortful control was low. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Phallometric diagnosis with 'nonadmitters'

The phallometric method of assessing erotic value of presented stimuli has two main tasks, one is in the breaking down of complex (potentially) sexual stimuli into components, the other is in diagnosing anomalous erotic preferences in ‘Nonadmitters’, i.e. in persons whose behaviour would imply there is such an anomaly, but who deny its presence. Differentiation between Admitters and Nonadmitters was attained by two verbal Admitter scales. Comparison of the scores on these scales with results of phallometric assessment showed (by mutual validation) that the phallometric method diagnoses Admitters more accurately than Nonadmitters. After that, the validity was tested of a new mode of the phallometric method, designed for diagnosing pedo- or hebephilia in Nonadmitters. In cases of homosexual pedophilia or hebephilia (but not in the heterosexual cases) the new Nonadmitter mode was superior to the Standard procedure.     

Methodological problems in the use of participant observers

A multiple baseline design across observed students and teachers was used to investigate the relationship between observations by participant observers and changes in the behavior of those observed ("observee" reactivity) and the observers (observer-mediator reactivity). Two teachers recorded consecutively the appropriate student verbalizations of four students and two teachers recorded the inappropriate student verbalizations of four students. Independent observers simultaneously recorded student verbalizations (appropriate and inappropriate) as well as teacher behaviors (positive, negative, and instruction) throughout all phases of the study. The results substantiated the prediction of "observee" reactivity and observer-mediator reactivity in one of four classrooms. The results of the present study suggest that in some instances, observations by participant observers may result in changes in the behavior of those being observed ("observee" reactivity) and/or the observers (observer-mediator reactivity).     

Behavioural adaptation to driving with an adaptive cruise control (ACC)

The present paper describes a study that aims at assessment of driver behaviour in response to new technology, particularly Adaptive Cruise Control Systems (ACCs), as a function of driving style. In this study possible benefits and drawbacks of Adaptive Cruise Control Systems (ACCs) were assessed by having participants drive in a simulator. The four groups of participants taking part differed on reported driving styles concerning Speed (driving fast) and Focus (the ability to ignore distractions), and drove in ways which were consistent with these opinions. The results show behavioural adaptation with an ACC in terms of higher speed, smaller minimum time headway and larger brake force. Driving style group made little difference to these behavioural adaptations. Most drivers evaluated the ACC system very positively, but the undesirable behavioural adaptations observed should encourage caution about the potential safety of such systems.     

Attentional asymmetries in a visual orienting task are related to temperament

Spatial asymmetries are an intriguing feature of directed attention. Recent observations indicate an influence of temperament upon the direction of these asymmetries. It is unknown whether this influence generalises to visual orienting behaviour. The aim of the current study was therefore to explore the relationship between temperament and measures of spatial orienting as a function of target hemifield. An exogenous cueing task was administered to 92 healthy participants. Temperament was assessed using Carver and White's (1994) Behavioural Inhibition System and Behavioural Activation System (BIS/BAS) scales. Individuals with high sensitivity to punishment and low sensitivity to reward showed a leftward asymmetry of directed attention when there was no informative spatial cue provided. This asymmetry was not present when targets were preceded by spatial cues that were either valid or invalid. The findings support the notion that individual variations in temperament influence spatial asymmetries in visual orienting, but only when lateral targets are preceded by a non-directional (neutral) cue. The results are discussed in terms of hemispheric asymmetries and dopamine activity.