Does parochial cooperation exist in childhood and adolescence? A meta-analysis

Although previous meta-analytic evidence supports the existence of parochialism in cooperation among adults, the extent to which children and adolescents are more willing to incur a personal cost to benefit ingroups, compared to outgroups, is not yet clear. We provide the first meta-analysis on the existence and magnitude of parochialism in cooperation among pre-adults. Based on 20 experimental economics studies (k = 69, N = 5268, age = 3–19, 12 countries, published 2008–2019), a multilevel meta-analytic model revealed a small overall effect size indicating that children and adolescents were more cooperative towards ingroups (d = 0.22, 95% CI [0.07, 0.38]). A series of single-moderator analyses tested for the following conditions: participant age and sex; game type ([mini-]dictator game, prisoner's dilemma, public goods dilemma, trust game, ultimatum game); outcome interdependence; membership manipulation (between- vs. within-subjects); group type (natural vs. experimental); reward type (monetary vs. non-monetary); and country of the participant. Parochial cooperation did not vary with participants' age. Parochialism was larger in non-interdependent (dictator-type) compared to interdependent (bargaining and social dilemma) games. There were no moderating effects of group type, membership manipulation or reward type. To provide more data on how parochialism develops, primary studies should report age ranges more precisely and use more restricted age groups.     

Relationships among behavioural regulations,physical activity,and mental health pre- and during COVID–19 UK lockdown

A nationwide survey was conducted during the first UK lockdown to further understanding of the degree to which motives for exercise were associated with physical activity (PA) behaviours and, in turn, how PA behaviours were associated with mental health. A cross-sectional design was employed and data were collected by use of a one-off online survey (N = 392; 18–85 years; MBMI = 25.48; SD_BMI = 5.05; 314 women). Exercise motives, PA, and mental health were measured by use of the Behavioural Regulations in Exercise Questionnaire-3, Brunel Lifestyle Physical Activity Questionnaire, and General Health Questionnaire-12, respectively. Participants were also asked to specify their average step count per day, if they used a mobile device for this purpose (n = 190). Analyses comprised hierarchical regressions and partial correlations. Results indicated that behavioural regulations were more strongly associated with planned PA pre-lockdown, compared to during lockdown. There were no differences observed in explained variance between pre- and during lockdown for unplanned PA and steps per day. Planned and unplanned PA were significant explanatory variables for mental health both pre- and during lockdown, but sedentary behaviour was not. Partial correlations, with BMI and age partialled out, showed that steps per day were not correlated with mental health either pre- or during lockdown. The range of variables used to explain planned and unplanned PA and mental health suggest that people's motives to exercise were tempered by lockdown. For those who routinely measured their steps per day, the step count was unrelated to their mental health scores both pre- and during lockdown. It appears that engagement in regular PA confers some minor benefits for mental health.     

A systematic review of the traits and cognitions associated with use of and belief in complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use is widespread despite the controversy over its effectiveness. Although previous reviews have examined the demographics and attitudes of CAM users, there is no existing review on the traits or cognitions which characterise either CAM users or those who believe in CAM effectiveness. The current systematic review set out to address these gaps in the literature by applying a narrative synthesis. A bibliographic search and manual searches were undertaken and key authors were contacted. Twenty-three papers were selected. The trait openness to experience was positively associated with CAM use but not CAM belief. Absorption and various types of coping were also positively associated with CAM use and belief. No other trait was reliably associated with CAM use or belief. Intuitive thinking and ontological confusions were positively associated with belief in CAM effectiveness; intuitive thinking was also positively associated with CAM use. Studies researching cognitions in CAM use/belief were mostly on non-clinical samples, whilst studies on traits and CAM use/belief were mostly on patients. The quality of studies varied but unrepresentative samples, untested outcome measures and simplistic statistical analyses were the most common flaws. Traits and cognition might be important correlates of CAM use and also of faith in CAM.     

Improving compliance with medical fitness to drive reviews: The role of behaviourally-optimised letters

To manage the increased crash risk posed by drivers with medical conditions and impairments, many licensing authorities ask high-risk drivers to undergo medical fitness to drive assessments. Maximising drivers’ compliance and satisfaction with these assessments is an ongoing challenge for these authorities. This study tested whether drivers’ compliance and satisfaction with a licensing authority’s request to provide a medical report could be improved by incorporating two applied behaviour change principles – simplified messaging and procedural fairness – into the authority’s request letter. Drivers undergoing medical review (N = 876) were assigned to receive either a standard request letter currently used by the authority, or a revised letter that incorporated simplified messaging and procedural fairness amendments. Drivers who received the revised letter were significantly more likely to submit a medical report by the due date. Additionally, of the drivers who submitted the report, those who received the revised letter submitted the report an average of four days faster than those who received the standard letter. These findings demonstrate that optimising letters using behavioural principles can improve compliance with licensing authorities’ requests, resulting in substantial time and cost savings for licensing authorities, possible road safety benefits, and potential reductions in the number of licences suspended for failure to provide a report.     

Attention lapses and behavioural microsleeps during tracking,psychomotor vigilance,and dual tasks

This study examined the incidence of attention lapses and microsleeps under contrasting levels of task complexity during three tasks: PVT, 2-D tracking and a dual task combining the two. More attention lapses per participant (median 15 vs. 3; range 1–74 vs. 0–76, p = 0.001), with the greatest increase with time spent-on-task (p = 0.002), were evident on the more cognitively-demanding dual task than on the PVT. Conversely, fewer microsleeps (median 0 vs. 0; range 0–1 vs. 0–18, p = 0.022) occurred during the more complex task compared to the tracking task. An increase in microsleep rate with time spent-on-task (p = 0.035) was evident during the tracking task but not the dual task. These results indicate that the higher cognitive load, associated with an increase in task complexity, increased the likelihood of attention lapses, while a reduction in task complexity increased the likelihood of microsleeps.     

Stressful life events and predictors of post-traumatic growth among high-risk early emerging adults

Stressful life events (SLEs) may elicit positive psychosocial change among youth, referred to as post-traumatic growth (PTG). We assessed types of SLEs experienced, degree to which participants reported PTG, and variables predicting PTG across 24 months among a sample of high-risk, ethnically diverse, early emerging adults. Participants were recruited from alternative high schools (n = 564; mean age = 16.8; 65% Hispanic). Multi-level regression models were constructed to examine the impact of environmental (SLE quantity, severity) and personal factors (hedonic ability, perceived stress, developmental stage, future time orientation) on a composite score of PTG. The majority of participants reported that positive changes resulted from their most life-altering SLE of the past two years. Predictors of PTG included fewer SLEs, less general stress, having a future time perspective, and greater identification with the developmental stage of emerging adulthood. Findings suggest intervention targets to foster positive adaptation among early emerging adults who experience frequent SLEs.     

Assessing the combined effects of resurgence and reinstatement in children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder

Resurgence and reinstatement are laboratory models of relapse following treatments for problem behavior that arrange alternative sources of reinforcement, such as differential reinforcement of alternative behavior and noncontingent reinforcement. Resurgence models the elimination or reduction of reinforcers during treatment and reinstatement models the re‐presentation of reinforcers previously maintaining problem behavior. The present study examined individual and combined effects of resurgence and reinstatement in a translational model of treatment relapse with three children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder. We first reinforced and then extinguished an arbitrary response while providing access to a preferred toy to model a version of noncontingent reinforcement with extinction. In the following phases, we examined resurgence by removing the toy, reinstatement by presenting the training reinforcer response‐independently, and a combination of resurgence and reinstatement. Overall, relapse of target responding reliably exceeded functionally similar responses never reinforced in the experimental situation. Most importantly, relapse tended to be greater when combining resurgence and reinstatement than when assessing either alone. These findings support previous studies showing that combinations of operations can increase treatment relapse. This translational model arranging simulated problem behavior with arbitrary tasks provides a platform from which to thoroughly and systematically assess methods for understanding and improving behavioral treatments.     

A Bibliographic Survey of the Activities and International Nature of Multiple Criteria Decision Making

One of the fascinating things about multiple criteria decision making (MCDM) is the degree to which the contributions that have built the field have come from all over the world. In this paper the international nature of the authorships of the 1216 refereed journal articles published on MCDM between 1987 and 1992, and the journals in which they have appeared, is examined. Also, an analysis of the 217 books and 31 journal special issues that have been published on MCDM, and 143 conferences that have been held on MCDM since the inception of the field, is similarly conducted. The paper concludes with a conference organizer, author and special issue guest editor index.     

The Attribution of Hostile Intent in Mothers,Fathers and Their Children

Child externalising symptoms are associated with a bias towards attributing hostile intent to others. We examined the role of parental attributions in the development of this hostile attribution bias in children. The parents of 134 children aged 5-7 years responded to hypothetical social scenarios examining a) their general tendency to attribute hostile intent to the ambiguous behaviour of others, and b) hostile attributions made specifically to their child. Children's own attributions of hostile intent and levels of externalising symptomatology were assessed. The results indicated that child externalising symptoms were positively associated with both a generalised tendency towards the attribution of hostile intent and child-specific hostile attributions in parents. Child externalising symptoms were themselves associated with hostile attributions made by the child. However, no direct associations were observed between parental and child attributions of hostile intent. Thus, although the results suggest a role for parental social information processing biases in the development of child externalising symptoms, a direct transmission of such biases from parent to child was not supported.