Parental affect and childrearing beliefs uniquely predict mothers' and fathers' ratings of children's behavior problems

The focus of this study was to examine the relations between parental characteristics and ratings of children's behavior problems. Although there is a considerable body of research that indicates that parental reports of children's behavior are biased by the characteristics of the parent, a number of limitations of past research have precluded definitive conclusions about the impact of individual characteristics. This study examined the role of parental affect and childrearing beliefs in determining parental ratings of child behavior in a selected sample of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. A series of analyses was specified in which teachers' and co-parents' ratings were controlled to examine the unique associations between parental characteristics and ratings of child behavior. After controlling for the co-parents' and teachers' ratings, both mothers' and fathers' psychological characteristics uniquely contributed to variation in their ratings of children's behavior problems. The specific affective and childrearing belief variables that accounted for variation in parental ratings varied by parent sex and the broadband rating analyzed. These analyses indicate the role that rater-specific characteristics may play in determining parents' assessments of child behavior.     

Age of Onset of ADHD in a Sample of Elementary School Students

Examined the age of onset of ADHD symptoms and subtypes using parent ratings of a large sample of elementary school students. Results showed: (1) in children with ADHD-combined type, hyperactive-impulsive symptoms emerged at younger ages than inattention symptoms; (2) about one-fifth of children who met symptom count and impairment criteria for ADHD did not meet the age of onset criterion; (3) Children who did not meet the age of onset criterion consisted primarily of children with inattention problems; and (4) children who did not meet the age of onset criterion had more impaired parent-child relationships, self-esteem, family functioning, and higher overall impairment ratings than children who did meet the criterion. These results raise questions about the validity of the age of onset criterion for ADHD as formulated in DSM-IV.     

Developmental Transitions in Youth Behavioral Opposition and Maternal Beliefs in Social Ecological Context

We investigated age-based changes in mothers’ complaints about offspring behavioral opposition, and offspring reports of opposition in a prospective longitudinal design (N = 821). Maternal complaints declined from pre-adolescence to early adulthood, but more slowly in low socioeconomic status (SES) and single-parent families. Mothers complained more about first- than later-born children, but showed no average differences for offspring gender, race, SES, or single parent status. Complaints covaried with youth-reported opposition, but effects involving SES, single-parent status, and birth order remained significant after opposition was controlled; this finding is interpreted to reflect social contextual differences in maternal beliefs. Youth opposition was stable to age 16, then decreased; higher levels were associated with earlier birth order and low SES among European-Americans. Our results have implications for parenting interventions, indicating that parents may benefit from education about the normative, gradual increase in concordance between their own expectations and their child’s behavior from early to late adolescence. Further, parenting interventions may be strengthened by actively attending to social contextual factors that shape parental belief systems and values.     

From Intent to Enrollment,Attendance, and Participation in Preventive Parenting Groups

Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to the process of engagement in preventive parenting groups, we tested the ability of family and child measures to predict intent to enroll, enrollment, attendance, and quality of participation in PACE (Parenting Our Children to Excellence). PACE is a prevention trial testing the efficacy of a structured program to promote effective parenting and reduce risk of adverse child outcomes. Mothers of preschoolers (N=451) from diverse ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds participated at two sites. Results showed that mothers who stated their intent to enroll reported relatively few time constraints but high levels of stress, as did mothers who enrolled. The latter also experienced elevated levels of oppositional defiant child behaviors, indicating that the program reached families who stood to benefit from it. Attendance, which was also best predicted by few time constraints, was high (with 49% of mothers who enrolled attending 5 or more of 8 sessions). In turn, attendance predicted quality of participation (at 1 site only), with mothers attending more sessions participating more actively and enthusiastically. Ethnicity and, with a few exceptions, socioeconomic circumstances and site, were not significant predictors of intent, enrollment, or attendance. Results provide qualified support for the TPB and illustrate its relevance to preventive research and interventions.     

An Evaluation of a Parenting Class Curriculum for Parents of Young Children: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Parenting the Strong-Willed Child</Emphasis>

Young children with high levels of acting out behaviors present a challenge for families, caregivers, and the childcare system. The Parenting the Strong-Willed Child (PSWC) parenting class curriculum program is a 6-week, group based parent education program designed for parents of children with noncompliance problems (ages 2–8). The PSWC program was offered at no cost to parents enrolled in 8 Head Start centers, and parents were invited to participate in a program evaluation study. Seventy-one families enrolled in the study and completed at least one PSWC session. From pre- to post-test, parents reported significant improvements in both the frequency and intensity of child behavior problems. Parents also reported significant reductions in parenting stress, as well as improvements in their parenting behaviors, including a reduction in the use of lax discipline techniques and emotional reactivity in the context of discipline encounters. All improvements were sustained six months later. These preliminary results are encouraging, and point to the need for a more rigorous, controlled evaluation of the PSWC parenting class curriculum.     

Multimodal Treatments for Childhood Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Interpreting Outcomes in the Context of Study Designs

The goal of this article was to outline issues critical to evaluating the literature on incremental benefit of multiple effective treatments used together, vs. a single effective treatment, for childhood ADHD. These issues include: (1) sequencing and dosage of treatments being combined and compared; (2) difficulty drawing valid conclusions about individual components of treatment when treatment packages are employed; (3) differing results emerging from measurement tools that purportedly measure the same domain; and (4) the resultant difficulty in reaching a summary conclusion when multiple outcome measures yielding conflicting results are used. The implications of these issues for the design and conduct of future studies are discussed, and recommendations are made for future research.     

Using the Step it UP! Game to increase physical activity during physical-education classes

The Step it UP! Game is an interdependent group reinforcement contingency based on the Good Behavior Game. We evaluated the effects of the Step it UP! Game on the number of steps taken by 3rd-grade students during physical-education (PE) classes at a local public elementary school. We divided the class into 2 teams and awarded a “Step it UP! Champ” badge to the members of the team with the highest mean step totals at the end of each game. We used a reversal design to compare the mean number of steps taken while playing the game and during regular PE classes. Overall, participants took more steps while playing the game than they did during class periods without the game. When given the opportunity to choose playing the Step it UP! Game or having regular PE class during a follow-up session, 16 of 18 participants voted to play the game.