Impaired task switching performance in children with dyslexia but not in children with autism

Problems with cognitive control in both autism and dyslexia have already been reported in different studies. The present study specifically examined task-switching performance in children with autism and dyslexia. For this purpose, a multiple-trial paradigm was used with cues for colour- and shape-matching tasks presented before a run of trials. The cue could imply a task switch (when the cue changed the task) or a task repetition (when the cue did not change the task). Both reaction times and error rates were measured for switching, restarting, and general task performance. Participants were children with autism (24) and with dyslexia (25) and healthy controls (27) with normal IQ and ages from 12 to 18 years. The main finding was that while similar switching performance was observed between children with autism and the healthy controls, children with dyslexia showed a significant switch-specific delay relative to both healthy controls and children with autism. Furthermore, no deficit in restarting performance was observed for any of the two patient groups. Finally, additional evidence is provided for a more general deficit in information processing in dyslexia. Our data suggest that children with autism are able to switch between tasks in a similar way as do normally developing children as long as the tasks are unambiguously specified. Furthermore, the data imply switch-specific deficits in dyslexia additionally to the deficits in general information processing already reported in the literature. The implications of our data are further discussed in relation to the interpretation of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test.     

Eye movements reveal no immediate “WOW” (“which one's weird”) effect in autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and typically developed (TD) adult participants viewed pairs of scenes for a simple “spot the difference” (STD) and a complex “which one's weird” (WOW) task. There were no group differences in the STD task. In the WOW task, the ASD group took longer to respond manually and to begin fixating the target “weird” region. Additionally, as indexed by the first-fixation duration into the target region, the ASD group failed to “pick up” immediately on what was “weird”. The findings are discussed with reference to the complex information processing theory of ASD (Minshew & Goldstein, 1998 Minshew, N. J. and Goldstein, G. 1998. Autism as a disorder or complex information processing. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 4: 129–136. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]).     

Deconstructing Frith and Snowling's homograph-reading task: Implications for autism spectrum disorders

The poor performance of autistic individuals on a test of homograph reading is widely interpreted as evidence for a reduction in sensitivity to context termed “weak central coherence”. To better understand the cognitive processes involved in completing the homograph-reading task, we monitored the eye movements of nonautistic adults as they completed the task. Using single trial analysis, we determined that the time between fixating and producing the homograph (eye-to-voice span) increased significantly across the experiment and predicted accuracy of homograph pronunciation, suggesting that participants adapted their reading strategy to minimize pronunciation errors. Additionally, we found evidence for interference from previous trials involving the same homograph. This progressively reduced the initial advantage for dominant homograph pronunciations as the experiment progressed. Our results identify several additional factors that contribute to performance on the homograph reading task and may help to reconcile the findings of poor performance on the test with contradictory findings from other studies using different measures of context sensitivity in autism. The results also undermine some of the broader theoretical inferences that have been drawn from studies of autism using the homograph task. Finally, we suggest that this approach to task deconstruction might have wider applications in experimental psychology.     

Prayer Behavior in Rural Kilimanjaro,Tanzania

Theories and empirical evidence regarding prayer behavior generally emerge from studies of survey respondents in developed countries. The research we describe here adds to the literature by exploring links between demographic characteristics and the frequency and content of prayers for respondents in rural Tanzania. We surveyed 349 Christian households from six villages in the country's Kilimanjaro region. In some aspects our findings match results from survey research conducted elsewhere, and in other aspects our results differ from those commonly reported in the literature. We suggest that local cultural and socioeconomic conditions may account for the differences in outcomes. These results suggest a need for caution in applying to poor countries theories and expectations drawn from the developed country context.     

Using Community Partnerships to Better Understand the Barriers to Using an Evidence‐Based,Parent‐Mediated Intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorder in a Medicaid System

Service use disparities have been noted to impede under‐resourced families' ability to access high‐quality services for their child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). These disparities are particularly relevant for parent‐mediated interventions and may suggest a lack of fit between these interventions and the needs of under‐resourced community settings. This study used Roger's Diffusion of Innovations theory to guide community partnerships aimed at understanding the perceived compatibility, complexity, and relative advantage of using an evidence‐based, parent‐mediated intervention (Project ImPACT) within a Medicaid system. Three focus groups were conducted with 16 Medicaid‐eligible parents, and three focus groups were conducted with 16 ASD providers operating within a Medicaid system. Across all groups, parents and providers reported general interest in using Project ImPACT. However, primary themes emerged regarding the need to (a) reduce the complexity of written materials; (b) allow for a more flexible program delivery; (c) ensure a strong parent–therapist alliance; (d) involve the extended family; and (e) help families practice the intervention within their preexisting routines. Results are discussed as they relate to the design and fit of evidence‐based, parent‐mediated interventions for under‐resourced community settings.     

Systemizing in autism: The case for an emotional mechanism

More often than others, people with autism engage in systemizing – attempts to understand and build rule-based systems. The mechanism behind the increased frequency of such behavior in autism is unknown, however. The assumption has long existed that emotions exist to motivate behavior, and there is now much evidence that people with autism tend to have stronger, more easily elicited emotions than the average person. This appears to be the cause of increased systemizing in autism – through a negative and a positive emotional pathway: There is evidence that autistic people want control more strongly than do others. This is often so, says the hypothesis, because strong negative emotions, other things equal, make lack of control feel more aversive than it does for most people. Systemizing can increase the feeling of control and hence reduce the negative emotion. Positive emotion can also motivate systemizing in autism – fascination and attraction more strongly felt and more easily elicited than in other people.     

Concurrent validity of the differential ability scales,second edition with the Mullen Scales of Early Learning in young children with and without neurodevelopmental disorders

Estimates of intelligence in young children with neurodevelopmental disorders are critical for making diagnoses, in characterizing symptoms of disorders, and in predicting future outcomes. The limitations of standardized testing for children with developmental delay or cognitive impairment are well known: Tests do not exist that provide developmentally appropriate material along with norms that extend to the lower reaches of ability. Two commonly used and interchanged instruments are the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL), a test of developmental level, and the Differential Ability Scales, second edition (DAS-II), a more traditional cognitive test. We evaluated the correspondence of contemporaneous MSEL and the DAS-II scores in a mixed sample of children aged 2–10 years with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), non-ASD developmental delays, and typically developing children across the full spectrum of cognitive ability. Consistent with published data on the original DAS and the MSEL, scores on the DAS-II and MSEL were highly correlated. However, curve estimation revealed large mean differences that varied as a function of the child’s cognitive ability level. We conclude that interchanging MSEL and DAS-II scores without regard to the discrepancy in scores may produce misleading results in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of children with and without ASD, and, thus, this practice should be implemented with caution.     

Current knowledge on motor disorders in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

Motor symptomatology in autism is currently poorly understood, and still not included in the autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnostic criteria, although some studies suggest the presence of motor disturbances in this syndrome. We provide here a literature review on early motor symptoms in autism, focusing on studies on psychomotor issues (tone, postural control, manual dexterity, handedness, praxis). The approach adopted in research to study altered motor behaviors is generally global and there is no detailed semiology of the motor or neuromotor disorders observed in people with ASD. This global approach does not enable understanding of the neuro-developmental mechanisms involved in ASD. Identification of clinical neuro-psychomotor profiles in reference to a standard would help to better understand the origin and the nature of the disorders encountered in ASD, and would thus give new directions for treatment.     

Resurgence is greater following a return to the training context than remaining in the extinction context

The present study examined whether resurgence of a previously reinforced target response upon removing alternative reinforcement would be greater when (1) returning to the original training context (ABA context changes) versus (2) remaining in the analogue treatment context in which the alternative response was differentially reinforced (ABB context changes). Experiment 1 arranged reinforcement of button pressing with points exchangeable for money in university students. Experiment 2 arranged reinforcement of lever pressing with food for rats. Experiment 3 arranged reinforcement of responses to a touchscreen with small bites of food with children diagnosed with ASD. Overall, resurgence of target responding tended to be greater when returning to the original training context (A) than when remaining in the analogue treatment context (B). These findings suggest context changes with differential reinforcement treatments could exacerbate the recurrence of problem behavior resulting from reductions in treatment integrity through failure to reinforce appropriate behavior.     

Community Perspectives on Adults With Autism Spectrum Disorder

Little is known about community attitudes toward adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and what factors lead to more positive attitudes. Using a cross-sectional design with a quantitative correlational approach, 60 adults were surveyed regarding experiences, knowledge, and comfort with adults with ASD living in the community. Most participants reported having encountered a person with ASD. Among these participants with personal experience, knowledge about ASD was relatively high. Amount of experience was the only variable associated with comfort. Results suggest that increasing exposure to people with ASD may be more effective in improving community acceptance compared to informational campaigns.