The transfer of specific and general consequential functions through simple and conditional equivalence relations

The purpose of this study was to examine the transfer of consequential (reinforcement and punishment) functions through equivalence relations. In Experiment 1, 9 subjects acquired three three-member equivalence classes through matching-to-sample training using arbitrary visual forms. Comparison stimuli were then given conditioned reinforcement or punishment functions by pairing them with verbal feedback during a sorting task. For 8 of the 9 subjects, trained consequential functions transferred through their respective equivalence classes without additional training. In Experiment 2, transfer of function was initially tested before equivalence testing per se. Three of 4 subjects showed the transfer without a formal equivalence test. In Experiment 3, 3 subjects were given training that gave rise to six new three-member conditional equivalence classes. For 2 of the subjects, the same stimulus could have either a reinforcement or punishment function on the basis of contextual cues that defined its class membership. Experiment 4 assessed whether equivalence training had established general or specific consequential functions primarily by adding novel stimuli in the transfer test. Subjects treated even novel feedback stimuli in the transfer test as consequences, but the direction of consequential effects depended upon the transfer of specific consequential functions through equivalence relations.     

Modality-general benefit of eye-closure on the retrieval of intentionally learned information

The beneficial effect of eye-closure during retrieval was demonstrated in many studies addressing eyewitness memory or memory of episodic events. Fewer studies examined the effect concerning the intentional learning of verbal information. Furthermore, the question of whether the eye-closure effect is modality-specific, boosting visual memory only, or modality-general, boosting also other forms of memory (e.g., auditory memory), is still open. These issues were addressed in the present study. Participants (N = 129) were asked to study aurally and visually presented lists of unrelated nouns (within-subjects). During free recall, participants either kept their eyes open or closed their eyes (between-subjects). Eye-closure resulted in better free recall than keeping the eyes open. Importantly, this effect emerged for both visually and aurally presented word lists, suggesting that the effect of closing the eyes is rather modality-general. The results are discussed with respect to limitations of previous studies and practical implications.     

Rarely Occurring Headaches and Rarely Occurring Blindness: Is Rarely=Rarely? The Meaning of Verbal Frequentistic Labels in Specific Medical Contexts

In three experimental studies, factors were examined which might influence the interpretation of verbal frequentistic labels in a specific context (i.e. side effects of medical drugs). In Study 1, we directly assessed subjects' numerical equivalents of three verbal labels (recommended for use by the German Federal Health Agency), which were embedded in stylized leaflets for medical drugs; we compared the estimates with those obtained in a context-free situation. The major findings were that (1) subjects' numerical equivalents for the verbal labels were clearly lower in the context condition than in the context-free situation, (2) subjects'; interpretations appeared to depend on the seriousness of the side effects, but (3) this dependency disappeared when explicit base rates were provided. In Studies 2 and 3, we indirectly examined the influence of the seriousness of the side effects, their frequency, and of the mode of expression (verbally versus numerically) by asking for risk judgments for and choices between drugs. Results of particular importance were that (1) seriousness and frequency of side effects had the same influence on judgments and choices but the mode of expression had no significant effect on either judgments or choices; (2) when subjects’ individual numerical equivalents of verbal labels were used in the leaflets, numerically described drugs were judged equally risky as verbally described drugs but were significantly preferred for consumption. These findings have theoretical relevance for research on the processing of verbal and numerical frequentistic expressions as well as a number of practical implications for the communication of medical information.     

Complications travel: A cross‐cultural comparison of the proportion of complications as a verbal cue to deceit

Verbal lie detection tools are almost exclusively examined in Western Europe and North America, but practitioners worldwide show interest in such tools. Because cultural differences in the efficacy of such tools may occur, it is important to examine their efficacy in different cultures. In this article, we focus on proportion of complications, which in previous research was more diagnostic than “total details” in two British samples and in three samples that each included Hispanic, Russian, and South Korean participants. In the present article, we merged the three non‐British samples and analysed the data by presenting them for each cultural group separately. Truth tellers disclosed the details of a trip away they had made, whereas liars fabricated such details. Proportion of complications discriminated truth tellers from liars in all three groups and was consistently a better indicator of veracity than total details. Implications of the findings are discussed.     

The importance of multiple exemplar instruction in the establishment of novel verbal behavior

According to traditional linguistic accounts language, and its generative nature, cannot be taught. From a behavior analytic perspective, language is like any other behavior; it is learned and amenable to change. Based upon Skinner's radical behavioral analysis of verbal behavior, specific procedures have been designed to promote novel verbal relations. However, despite the strength and utility of this approach, using behavioral principles to understand the generativity of language has been challenging. Dependent upon the specific theory (e.g., stimulus equivalence, relational frame theory, bidirectional naming) within the radical behavioral orientation, researchers arrange unique procedures to evaluate the variables responsible for this phenomenon. This paper presents the commonalities and differences of two procedures (i.e., multiple exemplar training, multiple exemplar instruction) with examples of research highlighting the use of both in producing generativity. Further, it describes how multiple exemplar instruction is independent from other procedures leading to this outcome, and concludes by providing recommendations for both research and practice.     

Teaching children with autism to mand for social information

We replicated Shillingsburg et al. (2018) by teaching children with autism to mand for social information while analyzing the variables influencing the emission of mands. We presented questions about a social partner that were known and observable (e.g., “What is Robin doing?”), known but unobservable (i.e., questions for which an intraverbal response had previously been taught, such as, “Where does Robin work?”), or unknown (e.g., “What is Robin's favorite food?”). Correct answers were reinforced across all conditions. During treatment, we prompted children to mand for information from the social partner following only unknown questions. All children acquired mands for social information and answered previously unknown questions correctly after manding for social information and 3 of 4 participants emitted mands to novel social partners, including a peer with autism.     

An inter-subjective multi-factorial model of auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia

Auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs) are perceptive-like experiences happening without appropriate stimuli that in individuals with schizophrenia very often feature distressing contents. AVH frequently interfere with social relationships or result in dangerous behaviours. We hypothesize that in schizophrenia several vulnerability factors, especially when a subject is engaged in real or represented interpersonal transactions, lead to the appearance of AVHs, and favour their self-perpetuation over time. We analyse the different psychological factors that, according to empirical studies and clinical experience with persons with schizophrenia, seem involved in the genesis of AVHs. Several vulnerability factors appear to interact with situational ones to trigger AVHs: a) a facilitation of neural transmission from the premotor regions to the perceptual ones; b) a difficulty attuning with others, c) interpersonal schemas, provoking emotional suffering, intrusive thoughts and rumination; d) metacognitive dysfunctions. Once AVHs have appeared, further factors promote their perpetuation over time: a) cognitive factors like ruminative processing on AVHs, b) metacognitive beliefs about AVHs. An integrated theoretical model of AVHs is described and ideas for its empirical testing are suggested.