Scharffs' Application of Hopper's Concept: “Incohesion: Aggregation/Massification”

We begin by stating our understanding of the concepts presented in Hopper's paper, then comment on the clinical illustration, and conclude by describing two group situations in which we have applied the concepts we have taken from Hopper's paper. Hopper's fourth basic assumption applies to our work as individual psychoanalysts, family therapists, and group leaders because it integrates psychoanalytic and social understanding. We demonstrate how and why we find Hopper's idea to be a useful advance.     

Computational Versus Associative Models of Simple Conditioning

In associative models of simple conditioning, conductive connections (associations, Hebbian synapses) are strengthened by the repetitive temporal pairing of stimuli. The associations cause the animal to behave more adaptively, but they do not encode information about objectively specifiable properties of the conditioning experience. In information processing (computational) models, the temporal intervals in that experience are timed and the results recorded in memory for later use in computations that determine the decisions whether and when to respond to the conditioned stimulus. The predictions of these latter models depend on the ratios of remembered and currently experienced temporal intervals; hence, they are time-scale invariant. Two examples of empirical time-scale invariance are described: Neither the delay of reinforcement nor the ratio of reinforced to unreinforced presentations of the conditioned stimulus affects rates of acquisition and extinction. Time-scale invariance has far-reaching implications for models of the processes that underlie conditioning, for example, models of Hebbian synapses.     

The Influence of Positive and Negative Affectivity on Attitude Change Toward Organizations

This study tests hypothesized differences in pre-post (product-harm) crisis attitude change toward an organization for positively and negatively oriented individuals. Contrary to theoretical predictions, there was not a strong differential attitude change between positively and negatively oriented individuals. The results suggest a possible boundary condition for the influence of positive and negative affectivity on attitude change. Two explanations are offered for these findings: (1) that the vividness of the situation might override affectivity and (2) that affectivity might not be a strong predictor of attitude change for nonpersonalized attitudes.     

Lesions in the Central Nucleus of the Amygdala: Discriminative Avoidance Learning, Discriminative Approach Learning, and Cingulothalamic Training-Induced Neuronal Activity

The amygdala is critically involved in discriminative avoidance learning. Large lesions of the amygdala block discriminative avoidance learning and abolish cingulothalamic training-induced neuronal activity. These results indicated that amygdalar processing is critical for cingulothalamic plasticity. The larger lesions did not allow differentiation of the specific functioning of various amygdalar nuclei. Anatomical analysis showed that damage in the central (CE) nucleus of the amygdala was correlated with the severity of the behavioral deficit. The present study was carried out to determine whether smaller lesions, centered in the CE nucleus, would impair discriminative avoidance learning and block cingulothalamic plasticity. In addition, the possible role of the CE nucleus in appetitively motivated discriminative approach learning was examined for the first time. New Zealand White rabbits with CE nuclear lesions were first trained in the discriminative approach task. After attaining asymptotic performance, discriminative avoidance training sessions were alternated with continuing approach training sessions, one session each day. The rabbits with lesions were severely impaired in avoidance learning but showed no impairment of approach learning. Surprisingly, the attenuating effects of the lesions on cingulothalamic training-induced neuronal activity were more prevalent during approach learning than during avoidance learning. These results indicated that avoidance learning can be impaired by lesions centered in the CE nucleus that leave cingulothalamic plasticity largely intact and that the CE nucleus is involved in extra-cingulothalamic learning processes.     

Integrative Family Therapy

This paper describes an integrative approach to marital and family therapy in which psychodynamic (particularly object relations), family systems, and behavioral (particularly cognitive–behavioral) theory are blended in a flexible and tailored therapeutic approach. Human personality in its most significant contexts is a consistent focus. Background factors in the development to the approach and illustrative case materials are included.     

Face processing in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

Current research on face processing in primates has focused on a few species, mostly macaques and chimpanzees; to date, only one New World monkey, the squirrel monkey, has been tested. We explored face processing, and the inversion effect in particular, in a New World primate species, the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus). In phase 1 of our study, we trained subjects to discriminate between two faces and two scrambled faces; we then presented the tamarins with a series of novel probes in order to determine the features underlying classification. Results showed that the tamarins relied on the external contour of the face for discrimination more than the internal features and their configuration. Statistical analyses revealed no differences in accuracy or response times to upright versus inverted stimuli, and thus no inversion effect. In phase 2, we provided subjects with additional training on the face versus scrambled face discrimination task in order to focus their attention on the configuration of the internal features. Accuracy data revealed individual differences in how tamarins classified these stimuli, even though each subject was trained in the same way. In phase 3, we tested for generalization to a new set of face stimuli, as well as for the capacity to show an inversion effect. For one subject who attended to the configuration of internal features, we found significant evidence of generalization, but no evidence for an inversion effect. Electronic Publication     

Confirming satisfaction as an attitude within the service‐buying process

This paper presents research that uses cognitive and affective semantic differential scales to construct an attitude measuring instrument to be used in the services domain in the context of long applications to buy a service. The scales measure ‘Attitude to the Application Process’ (AAP) which represents satisfaction, as an internal ‘buying process’ attitude, which moderates the buying intention. Data collected over a three‐year period between 1996‐9, was analysed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. The results provide evidence of a robust and useful cognitive scale. Although there were anomalies in the exploratory and confirmatory analysis of the affective scale, a robust scale is presented which represents either one or two factors. The whole measuring instrument of 14 items was developed as a means to access applicant attitudes during the application process to university — an extended and extreme application situation for first‐time consumers. The results identify that the instrument is sound and can be used in its original or modified form, depending on the context of the service‐process monitoring situation. The scales represent aspects of attitude not dealt with extensively in the literature and measure the perception of the application process as simple, open, friendly and helpful. These aspects of satisfaction mirror three attributes of service quality: assurance, responsiveness and empathy identified in previous research. Copyright © 2001 Henry Stewart Publications.     

Effects of constrained choice on memory: The extension of the multiple-cue hypothesis to the self-choice effect

The self-choice effect is the phenomenon whereby self-chosen items are remembered better than experimenter-assigned items. This study examined whether the effect occurs when the choice is constrained by cuing, and whether the effect also occurs for unchosen items. In the experiment, 33 participants chose (choice condition) or were assigned (force condition) a target from three alternatives that were followed by a cue sentence as a criterion for the choice. Cue sentences corresponded to any of the three alternatives (free cuing) or to only one (constrained cuing). Participants then engaged in free recall of targets and subsequent recognition of all alternatives (chosen and unchosen items). Memory performance was enhanced by choice regardless of the constraints, but was also enhanced for unchosen items. These results indicate that "free choice" is not always critical for the self-choice effect, and that multiple cuing involving unchosen items is a plausible account for the retention advantage of choice procedures.     

Decisionarium ‐ aiding decisions,negotiating and collecting opinions on the web

Decisionarium ( www.decisionarium.hut.fi ) is the first public site for interactive multicriteria decision support with tools for individual decision‐making as well as for group collaboration and negotiation. Web‐HIPRE ( www.hipre.hut.fi ) supports value tree and AHP analysis including group models. The RICH methodology ( www.rich.hut.fi ) allows the decision maker to provide incomplete ordinal preference statements when considering the relative importance of attributes in a value tree. Opinions‐Online ( www.opinion.huf.fi ) is a platform for surveys voting and group collaboration. There are different ways for voting, multiattribute scoring, surveys as well as interactive viewing of the results. Joint Gains ( www.jointgains.hut.fi ) applies the method of improving directions to support multiparty negotiations in a multicriteria setting. Smart Swaps offers an implementation of the even swaps procedure ( www.smart‐swaps.hut.fi ). All of the tools above are web‐based, so global interaction is natural and links can be utilized for multimedia information support. Decisionarium also offers access to complete e‐learning modules ( www.dm.hut.fi ) based on the use of the software. There are also illustrative powerpoint presentations and additional Windows software WINPRE and PRIME‐Decisions for value tree analysis under incomplete information. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.