Intelligence is differentially related to neural effort in the task-positive and the task-negative brain network

Previous studies on individual differences in intelligence and brain activation during cognitive processing focused on brain regions where activation increases with task demands (task-positive network, TPN). Our study additionally considers brain regions where activation decreases with task demands (task-negative network, TNN) and compares effects of intelligence on neural effort in the TPN and the TNN. In a sample of 52 healthy subjects, functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to determine changes in neural effort associated with the processing of a working memory task. The task comprised three conditions of increasing difficulty: (a) maintenance, (b) manipulation, and (c) updating of a four-letter memory set. Neural effort was defined as signal increase in the TPN and signal decrease in the TNN, respectively. In both functional networks, TPN and TNN, neural effort increased with task difficulty. However, intelligence, as assessed with Raven's Matrices, was differentially associated with neural effort in the TPN and TNN. In the TPN, we observed a positive association, while we observed a negative association in the TNN. In terms of neural efficiency (i.e., task performance in relation to neural effort expended on task processing), more intelligent subjects (as compared to less intelligent subjects) displayed lower neural efficiency in the TPN, while they displayed higher neural efficiency in the TNN. The results illustrate the importance of differentiating between TPN and TNN when interpreting correlations between intelligence and fMRI measures of brain activation. Importantly, this implies the risk of misinterpreting whole brain correlations when ignoring the functional differences between TPN and TNN.     

Non‐specific encoding of threat in social phobia and panic disorder

This study employs a release of proactive interference technique to explore encoding‐related processes in social phobia. Twenty‐six individuals with social phobia and 24 individuals with panic disorder participated in the memory task. Significant release of proactive interference was found when neutral and threat dimensions were encoded, but not when social and physical threat dimensions, or when positive and threat dimensions were presented. Threat was therefore differently encoded depending on the active encoding context in which semantic processing occurred. Individuals with social phobia or panic disorder did not differ in the release of proactive interference. The present experiment consequently yields little support for the specificity hypothesis in memory of anxious individuals. Instead, the findings generally demonstrate that threat encoding is similar for people with social phobia and those with panic disorder.     

Deep learning and punctuated equilibrium theory

Deep learning is associated with the latest success stories in AI. In particular, deep neural networks are applied in increasingly different fields to model complex processes. Interestingly, the underlying algorithm of backpropagation was originally designed for political science models. The theoretical foundations of this approach are very similar to the concept of Punctuated Equilibrium Theory (PET). The article discusses the concept of deep learning and shows parallels to PET. A showcase model demonstrates how deep learning can be used to provide a missing link in the study of the policy process: the connection between attention in the political system (as inputs) and budget shifts (as outputs).     

Do Jews Feel Like Outsiders in America? The Impact of Anti‐Semitism,Friendships, and Religious Geography

While once the archetypical outsiders, most Jews today do not feel like outsiders in the United States. Using the 2001 National Jewish Population Survey, we examine the factors that differentiate those who feel like outsiders from those who do not. We find that feeling like an outsider is largely associated with having experienced anti‐Semitism, the number of Jews living nearby, the proportion of a respondent's friends’ that are Jewish, and whether Jews identify with some branch of Judaism versus those who identify as ethnic Jews. Although the effects of discrimination on feeling like an outsider are unsurprising, the smaller but persistent effect of geographic context deserves more attention. Jews feel less like outsiders when they live in places where they can and do have more contact with other Jews. The increased within‐group ties that are possible in areas of greater Jewish concentration appear to facilitate psychological integration into the larger community.     

A Note on the Frequency and Sources of Close Interreligious Ties

As the religious landscape of the United States becomes increasingly diverse, understanding how individuals of different faiths relate to each other and the consequences of those relationships presents a significant issue for research. Research studying such faith‐bridging interactions has been limited and primarily focused on interfaith marriage. Using social network data from the 2004 General Social Survey we examine the dynamics underlying the frequency of interfaith ties of all types. We then analyze how interreligious ties differ in strength from intrareligious ties.     

Channels of Change: Contrasting Network Mechanisms in the Use of Interventions

This study informs community science, and seeks to narrow the research-to-practice gap, by examining how the interpersonal networks within a setting influence individuals' use of interventions. More specifically, it explores the role of two network mechanisms-cohesion and structural similarity-in urban elementary school teachers' use of interventions designed to improve academic and behavioral outcomes for students. Lagged regression models examine how position in advice giving networks influenced weekly use of the daily report card and peer assisted learning by kindergarten through fourth grade teachers in three schools. Results indicate that intervention use spreads among teachers with similar patterns of advice-giving relationships (i.e., via structural similarity), rather than from teachers who are sources of advice (i.e., via cohesion). These results are consistent with findings in other settings, and suggest that researchers wishing to increase the use of an intervention should select change agents based on their patterns of their relationships, rather than on their direct connections.     

The detrimental effects of power on confidence, advice taking, and accuracy

Incorporating input from others can enhance decision quality, yet often people do not effectively utilize advice. We propose that greater power increases the propensity to discount advice, and that a key mechanism explaining this effect is elevated confidence in one’s judgment. We investigate the relationships across four studies: a field survey where working professionals rated their own power and confidence and were rated by coworkers on their level of advice taking; an advice taking task where power and confidence were self-reported; and two advice taking experiments where power was manipulated. Results consistently showed a negative relationship between power and advice taking, and evidence of mediation through confidence. The fourth study also revealed that higher power participants were less accurate in their final judgments. Power can thus exacerbate the tendency for people to overweight their own initial judgment, such that the most powerful decision makers can also be the least accurate.     

Company matters: Goal-related social capital in the transition to working life

Using longitudinal data on 343 young adults, the present study investigated the social ties involved in young adults’ work-related goals, how these ties change during transition to working life, and whether social ties contribute to success in dealing with the transition. The results showed that goal-relevant social ties reflected changes in the young adults’ developmental context. Furthermore, social ties that included a person with high socioeconomic status and weaker social ties contributed to employment success, whereas social ties containing one’s supervisor were associated with quality of employment. The results also showed that goal-related social hindrance increased young adults’ intentions to quit and decreased job satisfaction.