Organizational features of a young child's behaviors

The study was designed to investigate the nature of response-class phenomena and the possibility of indirect contingency control. A single subject was employed. Prior to the start of the study, the experimenter established the process of maintaining stimulus constancy during a preexperimental phase. Subsequent to the first baseline phase, a factor analysis was done to define the response class and the behavior categories constituting the class. Manipulating a single adult consequence to a response-class category over subsequent baseline and manipulation phases revealed frequency changes in all behavior categories in the response class. The data gave support to indirect behavior control. Search for possible explanations of frequency changes showed that the direction of the frequency changes were predictable from the results of the factor analysis.     

The effects of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards in a risk-taking situation

This study varied both the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards associated with performing a task in a risk taking situation. When the task performed to win a prize provided little if any intrinsic reward, subjects liked and tried for prizes that were easy to obtain. In contrast, when the task was intrinsically rewarding, subjects liked and tried for those prizes that were somewhat more difficult to obtain. In addition, subjects were more likely to like and try for prizes easier to obtain when the extrinsic reward was high.     

Age differences in memory span

Five-year-olds recalled fewer items than adults in memory-span tasks involving both familiar and unfamiliar faces. This occurred even though the use of rehearsal and recoding strategies was minimized for adults. This residual age difference may be partially accounted for by two further processing limitations in children. The five-year-olds needed more time than adults to name a face (Experiment 1) and to encode a face (Experiment 2). In order to test whether limitations in children's initial recognition and stimulus-identification processes could account for recall performance, Experiment 3 reduced adults' exposure duration in the memory-span task. This led to a drastic reduction in the age difference. Other factors contributing to remaining age differences included adults' adaptability in using various alternative encoding and retrieval strategies which elevated their recall performance.     

How Exceptional Is the West? An Investigation of Worldwide Trends in Societal-Average Levels of Religiosity, 1981–2020

Research shows most Western societies became less religious over recent decades. But we know much less about the rest of the world. Is the non-Western world also becoming less religious, as some varieties of secularization theory would lead us to expect? Using 1981-to-2020 World/European Values Survey data from 103 countries, this study describes, and uses mixed-effects models to rigorously estimate, religious trends in eight world regions and five former Soviet and Eastern Bloc (FSEB) subregions. Results indicate that religious decline occurred in Latin America, Central and Baltic Europe, and (recently) in the Mideast and North Africa. But there is little evidence of such decline elsewhere in Asia, Africa, or the FSEB—despite the broad reach of many modernizing social trends. These findings do not lend support to a strong version of secularization theory but may be consistent with some versions of the idea that modernization can make people less religious.     

Emotional,cognitive, and social functioning in children and early adolescents living in post-armed conflict: Testing mediating mechanisms

This study examined whether, and to which extent, the associations between conflict intensity and children's and early adolescents' functioning problems were mediated through parental harsh discipline in a post-armed conflict setting. Data from 9623 Iraqi mothers and their children who participated in UNICEF MICS showed that the associations between conflict intensity, parental discipline and child functioning were similar for children and early adolescents. Higher conflict intensity was indirectly associated with increased anxiety and depression, greater learning and cognitive difficulties, and greater social and behavioural problems through parental harsh discipline. The proportion mediated effect sizes emphasised the importance of parent-focused interventions in improving child and adolescent functioning outcomes in conflict-affected populations.     

Swapping Gender Traditionalism: Christianity,Buddhism, and Gender Ideology in South Korea

South Korea provides an ideal setting for studying religion and gender because Western and local religions are both prominent, and Confucianist beliefs still shape gender norms. Using the 2018 Korean General Social Survey, this study examines the extent to which two dimensions of gender traditionalism in South Korea–Confucian patriarchal ideology (i.e., belief in the subordination of women for Confucian patriarchy) and separate spheres ideology (i.e., belief that men are better suited to work and women to domestic responsibilities)—vary across Buddhists, Catholics, Protestants, and the nonaffiliated. The findings show that Christians have the lowest endorsement for Confucian patriarchal ideology while supporting separate spheres ideology as much as Buddhists, who are most gender traditional in both dimensions. The results illustrate the dynamics between religion and gender norms in South Korea's context, demonstrating how Christianity combines Western modernization with gender-essentialist traditionalism, while Buddhism maintains Confucian patriarchal values.     

Computer self efficacy and gender: a cross cultural study of Scotland and Romania

Research has indicated that in West Europe males on average are often found to be more experienced about computing than females, and to have more positive attitudes and self efficacy (self confidence) towards computing than females. Research has also shown that some East Europe countries have had relatively greater female involvement with technology, engineering and computing than West Europe. 200 Romanian and 148 Scottish students completed a computer self efficacy scale. Overall males were more confident than females in advanced and file and software computer skills, but of similar confidence for beginning skills. Scots of both genders were more confident than their Romanian equivalents for beginning computer skills, whilst Romanians were more confident for advanced computer skills. The 3 elements of the self efficacy scale — beginning, advanced and file and software skills — correlated positively with each other. The results were interpreted as showing both similarity and difference in computing self efficacy between Scotland and Romania.     

20世纪医学发展态势 21世纪医学发展预测--1901～1999年诺贝尔生理学/医学奖综合分析

通过对 190 1～ 1999年诺贝尔生理学 /医学奖综合分析 ,发现生物医学科学的发展规律。并对 2 1世纪医学发展的进行预测 :人类将完成庞大的人体基因组计划 ;攻克各种顽症 ;生产各种人造器官 ,以供移植所需。总结两种治疗疾病的思路 :一种是通过修正致病基因 ,另一种思路可通过器官移植 ,从根本上达到治病的目的