Conceptualizations of valence and instrumentality: A fourfold model

Within the framework of valence-instrumentality (VI) theory, a fourfold model is developed to predict the contribution which is made by one outcome of an alternative to the valence of that alternative. The proposed model uses four subjective conditional probabilities which are based on the presence and absence of an alternative, and on the occurrence and nonoccurrence of an outcome. Valence is defined as the difference between the attractiveness values of the occurrence of an alternative (or an outcome) and the nonoccurrence of an alternative (or an outcome). Also, differences between subjective probabilities replace instrumentalities. Alternative valence-instrumentality formulations are analyzed in relation to the proposed fourfold model. The proposed model can be understood as a consistent application of Vroom's model (1964, Work and motivation, New York: Wiley), while other models are judged to be relatively deficient. The fourfold model, in combination with a matrix formulation of expectancy concepts, addresses a number of criticisms of VI theory and makes possible a test of the theory within the limits of its own assumptions.     

A test of the X-linked genetic hypothesis for sex differences on Piaget's water-level task

Data from seven studies involving 849 high school and college students were used to test the recessive X-linked genetic model prediction that the square of the proportion of men who perform accurately on the water-level task is equal to the proportion of women who perform accurately. Goodness-of-fit tests showed that this prediction was confirmed for each sample. A model with a single estimate of gene frequency accounted for all the data when a classification error parameter was incorporated into the X-linked model. In both models the gene frequency parameter was about $\text{2}\text{3}$.     

Weight discrepancy and body appreciation among women in Poland and Britain

Previous studies have suggested that the process of transmigration has detrimental effects on the body image of migrants relative to women in the country of origin. In the present work, we examined the body image of Polish migrants in Britain (n = 153), Polish women in Poland (n = 153), and a comparison group of British White women (n = 110). Participants completed a measure of actual-ideal weight discrepancy and the Body Appreciation Scale (BAS). Contrary to hypotheses, our results showed that Polish women in Poland had significantly higher weight discrepancy than their counterparts in Britain. Further analyses showed that the BAS reduced to two dimensions among Polish participants, with Polish participants in Poland having significantly lower body appreciation than Polish migrants. We suggest that the sociocultural changes that have taken place in Eastern Europe may place women in that region at relatively high risk for developing negative body image.     

Clarifying boundaries of binge eating disorder and psychiatric comorbidity: a latent structure analysis

Binge eating disorder (BED) presents with substantial psychiatric comorbidity. This latent structure analysis sought to delineate boundaries of BED given its comorbidity with affective and anxiety disorders. A population-based sample of 151 women with BED, 102 women with affective or anxiety disorders, and 259 women without psychiatric disorders was assessed with clinical interviews and self-report-questionnaires. Taxometric analyses were conducted using DSM-IV criteria of BED and of affective and anxiety disorders. The results showed a taxonic structure of BED and of affective and anxiety disorders. Both taxa co-occurred at an above-chance level, but also presented independently with twice-as-large probabilities. Within the BED taxon, diagnostic co-occurrence indicated greater general psychopathology, lower social adaptation, and greater premorbid exposure to parental mood and substance disorder, but not greater eating disorder psychopathology. Eating disorder psychopathology discriminated individuals in the BED taxon from individuals in the affective and anxiety disorders taxon. Diagnostic criteria of BED were more indicative of the BED taxon than were criteria of affective and anxiety disorders. The results show that at the latent level, BED was co-occurring with, yet distinct from, affective and anxiety disorders and was not characterized by an underlying affective or anxiety disorder.     

《白虎通义》与易学

光武中兴后,在易学领域,古文费氏易学渐兴,但属于今文的象数易学特别是<易纬>的象数易学仍然占据主导地位,且广泛、深刻地影响着当时的社会政治和思想文化的发展.<白虎通义>吸收、借鉴<易纬>之说,构筑了一个以太初、太始、太素、三光、五行为次序的宇宙生成模式.它曾称述<易传>"汤武革命"之说,强调改朝换代的必然性和合理性,同时倾心于<易传>的天尊地卑、乾坤定位之说和董仲舒的三纲五常思想,系统阐述了三纲六纪理论,目的在于营造一个上下各安其位的和谐的社会氛围,实现天人整体和谐的文化价值理想.     

Women in male-dominated professions: Contrasts in their personal and vocational histories

Women in four high-status, male-dominated professions—architecture, law, medicine, and psychology—are described in terms of a variety of historical, social, and career variables. The women share common antecedents of their vocational choices and similar perceptions of their work, but the occupational groups are dissimilar on a number of dimensions. Psychologists stand in particular contrast to the other three groups of professionals, describing experiences and career patterns less in conflict with stereotypic female roles. These contrasts may reflect differences in the sex-typed characterizations of the professions even though all are male-dominated.     

Reinforcement and attraction specifying the effects of affective states

A multiplicative effect of magnitude and proportion of positive reinforcements on attraction and self-rated feelings was examined. Subjects (N = 270) rated their attraction toward persons associated with one of three reinforcement magnitudes (personality similarity, attitude similarity, and personal evaluations) and one of six proportions of positive reinforcements (.00, .20, .40, .60, .80, and 1.00). Results indicated that the slope of the linear attraction function increased and the Y-intercept decreased with increasing magnitude of reinforcement (p < .05). A similar interaction effect was found on the feelings of the subjects (N = 90) in another experiment. The results were interpreted as added support for Byrne's reinforcement-affect model of interpersonal attraction.     

Effects of sucrose concentrations on single alternation runway responding in rats

Rats received runway training under alternating reward and nonreward in which rewarded (R) trials provided 32 or 4% sucrose concentration from a drinking tube and nonrewarded (N) trials provided a dry tube or, for half of the rats in the 32% condition, plain water. Both 32 and 4% concentrations yielded faster running on R trials than on N trials; but this effect was reliable only for the 32% condition. Compared to 4% sucrose, 32% sucrose yielded reliably slower running on N trials and unreliably faster running on R trials.