Three obstructions: forms of causation,chronotopoids, and levels of reality

The thesis is defended that the theories of causation, time and space, and levels of reality are mutually interrelated in such a way that the difficulties internal to theories of causation and to theories of space and time can be understood better, and perhaps dealt with, in the categorial context furnished by the theory of the levels of reality. The structural condition for this development to be possible is that the first two theories be opportunely generalized.

The rhythm aftereffect: support for time sensitive neurons with broad overlapping tuning curves

Ivry [Ivry, R. B. (1996). The representation of temporal information in perception and motor control. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 6, 851-857.] proposed that explicit coding of brief time intervals is accomplished by neurons that are tuned to a preferred temporal interval and have broad overlapping tuning curves. This proposal is analogous to the orientation selective cells in visual area V1. To test this proposal, we used a temporal analog to the visual tilt aftereffect. After adapting to a fast auditory rhythm, a moderately fast test rhythm (400 ms between beats) seemed slow and vice versa. If the speed of the adapting rhythm was made too disparate from speed of the test rhythm the effect was diminished. The effect occurred whether the adapting and test stimuli were presented to the same or different ears, but did not occur when an auditory adapting rhythm was followed by a visual test rhythm. Results support the proposition that explicit time information is coded by neural units tuned to specific temporal intervals with broad overlapping tuning curves. In addition, it appears that there is a single timing mechanism for each incoming sensory mode, but distinct timers for different modes.     

Regulatory focus and investment decisions in small groups

Regulatory Focus Theory was applied to small interactive groups. Based on previous research, it was expected that groups with a promotion focus would discuss gain-relevant information, whereas groups with a prevention focus would be concerned with potential losses. Furthermore, promotion groups were expected to make riskier decisions than prevention groups. Regulatory focus was manipulated by rewarding good or penalizing poor group performance on a preliminary task. Subsequently, three-person groups discussed several investment funds and made a consensual investment decision. Results supported the hypotheses and suggested that regulatory focus requires time to exert its influence in groups.     

Studies on time: a proposal on how to get out of circularity

The analysis of time is vitiated very often by circularity: several disciplines, such as psychology, linguistics, and neurosciences, analyze time by using concepts or terms which already contain in themselves, or are based, on the experience and notion of time (as when, for example, time is defined as “duration”, or when our ability to estimate durations is explained by resorting to the notion of an internal clock). Some detailed examples of circularity in the analysis of time are given here and examined. A way out of circularity is then given: it is represented by the proposal of attentional semantics (AS) of considering words and their meanings in terms of the aim they serve, and the means and processes developed and implemented in order to achieve that aim. According to AS, the main aim of words is that of indicating to, and eliciting in, the listener or reader a specific conscious experience: namely, the conscious experience referred to by their meanings. Words achieve their main aim by conveying the condensed instructions on the attentional operations one has to perform if one wants to consciously experience what is expressed through and by them. By describing the conscious experiences elicited by words in terms of the attentional operations that are responsible for the production of such conscious experiences, AS offers an a-linguistic counterpart to language, and therefore an effective way out of circularity. Following in footsteps of Mach (Contributions to the analysis of the sensations, 1890), but slightly revising his hypothesis, AS defines time-sensation as the perception of the effort made, or alternatively the nervous energy expended, by the organ of attention when performing a “temporal activity” (for instance, estimating duration), that is, when one’s own attention is focused in a continuous and incremental way on the conscious product of the (“non-temporal”) activity performed by means of another portion of one’s attention.

Time pressure and group performance: Exploring underlying processes in the Attentional Focus Model

The Attentional Focus Model (Karau & Kelly, 1992) predicts that time pressure should lead group members to focus on a restricted range of task-relevant cues and to adopt task completion as their major interaction objective. Although this prediction has been supported in several studies (e.g., Karau & Kelly, 1992; Kelly, Jackson, & Hutson-Comeaux, 1997; Kelly & Karau, 1999; Parks & Cowlin, 1995), the exact processes that underlie information restriction have not been specified. We propose that two processes are involved. Specifically, the restriction of information may occur because time pressure affects the way in which information is initially encoded or attended to before a group enters its decision-making phase, or because group members filter out what they judge to be less important information during group discussion and decision making. We assessed both of these processes within a decision-making experiment where time pressure was manipulated prior to learning information that would be used to perform a task. Recall of information learned prior to group discussion did not differ by time pressure condition, arguing against an encoding process. In contrast, interaction data demonstrated information restriction by group members, arguing for a filtering process. Thought listings collected 1 min into the group discussion in some groups also supported a filtering process, as did questionnaire data. Implications of these findings for the Attentional Focus Model and for effective group decision making are discussed.     

创造与伸展:奥古斯丁时间观的两个向度

奥古斯丁《忏悔录》中的“时间之间”受到后世哲学家们的广泛关注和高度评价,但往往只重视其中“心灵的伸展”这一向度．而忽视上帝的创造这一向度,忽视了永恒之维。事实上,上帝的创造和心灵的伸展这两个向度不可分割．前者规定后者,阐明时间的起源;后者反映前者,说明时间的存在和本质。后者受前者的制约。也就是说,心灵的伸展有一个界限,是不可超越的。当文德尔班强调奥古斯丁的形而上学是“内在经验的形而上学”时,他确认了奥古斯丁时间观的心灵向度;当吉尔松称之为“皈依的形而上学”时,则是强调“心灵伸展的界限”,即永恒上帝的创造。     

Time Use, Time Pressure and Gendered Behavior in Early and Late Adolescence

Using a stratified sample of Canadian adolescents residing in Ontario (n = 2,154) time use patterns and perceptions of time pressure are explored to determine gender differences among younger (12–14 years) and older adolescents (15–19 years). For both age groups, girls report a higher total workload of schoolwork, domestic activities and paid employment and spend more time on personal care while boys have more free time, especially during early adolescence. Feelings of time pressure for teens increase with age and are significantly higher for girls in both age categories. Gender differences are less pronounced on school days when time is fairly structured, but become more consistent with traditional gender schema on the weekend when time use is more discretionary.     

A simulator study of factors influencing drivers’ behavior at traffic lights

Drivers’ reactions to changing traffic lights have an impact on safety at intersections. We examined the influence of transient factors – more specifically time pressure and social context, both conducive to traffic-light violation – on behavior behind the wheel when a traffic light changes. We carried out an experiment on a driving simulator. The participants were 94 car drivers (53 males) with a mean age of 21.7 years. They drove under time pressure vs. no time pressure. At several intersections the participants were alone (no other drivers present), whereas at several other intersections they were behind a line-up of vehicles, the last of which ran the yellow light (other drivers present). As expected, time pressure and social context (presence of other drivers) increased participants’ risky behaviors while approaching, and going through traffic lights, as well as undesirable rapid accelerations when the signal changes to green. The effect of time pressure on yellow-light running was not mediated by approach speed, which showed that participants in a hurry were likely to run lights intentionally. The results are interpreted in view of proposing effective measures for reducing yellow-light running and rapid accelerations at traffic lights.