Incongruence in number–luminance congruency effects

Congruency tasks have provided support for an amodal magnitude system for magnitudes that have a "spatial" character, but conflicting results have been obtained for magnitudes that do not (e.g., luminance). In this study, we extricated the factors that underlie these number-luminance congruency effects and tested alternative explanations: (unsigned) luminance contrast and saliency. When luminance had to be compared under specific task conditions, we revealed, for the first time, a true influence of number on luminance judgments: Darker stimuli were consistently associated with numerically larger stimuli. However, when number had to be compared, luminance contrast, not luminance, influenced number judgments. Apparently, associations exist between number and luminance, as well as luminance contrast, of which the latter is probably stronger. Therefore, similar tasks, comprising exactly the same stimuli, can lead to distinct interference effects.     

The /O/ in OVER is different from the /O/ in OTTER: phonological effects in children with and without dyslexia

First-letter naming was used to investigate the role of phonology in printed word perception in children with and without dyslexia. In 2 experiments, all children showed faster first-letter-naming times in a congruent condition than in an incongruent condition, which suggests that phonology is a fundamental constraint in the printed word perception of readers of all levels and all skills. An explanation in terms of a recurrent network put forward by G. C. Van Orden and S. D. Goldinger (1996) is discussed to account for the apparent paradox in the reading behavior of readers with dyslexia, that is, that in first-letter naming, dyslexic readers appear to show phonological congruity effects, whereas in pseudoword reading, their phonological knowledge appears to be deficient or absent.     

How to Assess a Model's Testability and Identifiability

Formal definitions are given of the following intuitive concepts: (a) A model is quantitatively testable if its predictions are highly precise and narrow. (b) A model is identifiable if the values of its parameters can be ascertained from empirical observations. (c) A model is redundant if the values of some parameters can be deduced from others or if the values of some observables can be deduced from others. Various rules of thumb for nonredundant models are examined. The Counting Rule states that a model is quantitatively testable if and only if it has fewer parameters than observables. This rule can be safely applied only to identifiable models. If a model is unidentifiable, one must apply a generalization of the Counting Rule known as the Jacobian Rule. This rule states that a model is quantitatively testable if and only if the maximum rank (i.e., the number of linearly independent columns) of its Jacobian matrix (i.e., the matrix of partial derivatives of the function that maps parameter values to the predicted values of observables) is smaller than the number of observables. The Identifiability Rule states that a model is identifiable if and only if the maximum rank of its Jacobian matrix equals the number of parameters. The conclusions provided by these rules are only presumptive. To reach definitive conclusions, additional analyses must be performed. To illustrate the foregoing, the quantitative testability and identifiability of linear models and of discrete-state models are analyzed. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.     

Toward understanding why fairness matters: the influence of mortality salience on reactions to procedural fairness

This article focuses on the question of why fairness matters to people. On the basis of fairness heuristic theory, the authors argue that people especially need fairness when they are uncertain about things that are important to them. Following terror management theory, the authors focus on a basic kind of human uncertainty: fear of death. Integrating these two theoretical frameworks, it is proposed that thinking about their mortality should make fairness a more important issue to people. The findings of three experiments support the authors' line of reasoning: Asking participants to think about their mortality led to stronger fair process effects (positive effects of perceived procedural fairness on subsequent reactions) than not asking them to think about mortality. It is argued that these findings suggest that fairness especially matters to people when they are uncertain about fundamental aspects of human life such as human mortality.     

Attributions of responsibility and affective reactions to decision outcomes

Immediate affective reactions to outcomes are more intense following decisions to act than following decisions not to act. This finding holds for both positive and negative outcomes. We relate this "actor-effect" to attribution theory and argue that decision makers are seen as more responsible for outcomes when these are the result of a decision to act as compared to a decision not to act. Experiment 1 (N = 80) tests the main assumption underlying our reasoning and shows that affective reactions to decision outcomes are indeed more intense when the decision maker is seen as more responsible. Experiment 2 (N = 40) tests whether the actor effect can be predicted on the basis of differential attributions following action and inaction. Participants read vignettes in which active and passive actors obtained a positive or negative outcome. Action resulted in more intense affect than inaction, and positive outcomes resulted in more intense affect than negative outcomes. Experiment 2 further shows that responsibility attributions and affective reactions to outcomes are highly correlated; that is, more extreme affective reactions are associated with more internal attributions. We discuss the implications for research on post-decisional reactions.     

Wisconsin Card Sorting in adolescents: analysis of performance, response times and heart rate

Forty-nine adolescents performed the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). A main PCA component of WCST performance was identified as 'efficiency of reasoning'. This factor was related to feedback processing. From the WCST, a perseveration score can be derived. Perseveration is the continued application of a rule, after it has been disconfirmed. We compared more and less perseverating subjects in relation to stimulus-response (SR) time, feedback inspection time and cardiac acceleration and deceleration. Less perseverating subjects responded faster, and had longer and more adaptive inspection times of error feedback. We examined the switch from rule application to rule search, and the difference between correct and error responses. A transient cardiac deceleration at the initiation of rule search was interpreted as a change in supervisory attention. An error-related deceleration to negative feedback was interpreted as a disturbance of higher control processing. Previous trial feedback influenced current processing time, feedback inspection time, and the cardiac acceleration and deceleration responses.     

Excessive breathlessness through emotional imagery in asthma

Breathlessness and negative emotions during asthma attacks interact in complex patterns. This study tested the influence of emotional imagery on breathlessness during voluntary breath holding. Adolescents with and without asthma (n = 36 + 36) were assigned to positive imagery, negative imagery, or no imagery. There were four trials with close to thresholds for breath holding combined with imagery. Breathlessness and quality of imagery were measured by the end of breath holding. Additional measures were lung function and anxiety. The results showed that positive and negative imagery were only influencing breathlessness in participants with asthma. Although threshold duration for the groups were not significantly different, participants with asthma reported more breathlessness. The intensity of imagery enhanced breathlessness but diminished the accuracy of symptom perception. Positive imagery diminished breathlessness in participants with asthma, but also the difference in breathlessness between 75% and 95% of threshold duration. Breathlessness did not correlate with lung function, anxiety or other variables. It was concluded that emotional imagery during asthma attacks distracts from accurate introspection or enhances breathlessness, irrespective of anxiety.     

Facial composite production: a comparison of mechanical and computer-driven systems

Computer-driven systems for constructing composite faces of suspects (E-fit; Mac-a-Mug) have largely replaced mechanical systems (Photofit; the Identikit) in police use, yet little is known of their comparative effectiveness in rendering an accurate likeness. Participants (N = 24) constructed 2 of 4 familiar or unfamiliar faces, for one of which they used Photofit and for the other, E-fit. A likeness of each face was made first under target-absent conditions and then with photographs of the target present. The accuracy of the resulting composites was assessed by familiarity ratings, names elicited, and matching accuracy. The computer-driven system showed consistent superiority only when a familiar face was constructed in the presence of photographs; when participants worked from memory, E-fit was no better than Photofit. The implications of these findings for theories of face retrieval and the operational use of composites are discussed.     

The role of causal discourse structure in narrative writing

All writers produce text content and ideally connect it together according to discourse conventions. We investigate whether a particularly strong discourse convention, the need for causal coherence in narratives, can predict the kind of text writers will produce. Causality has been found to be a significant discourse factor in reading comprehension and hence can be expected to determine also what writers produce during composition. In Experiment 1, writers composed short continuations at various points throughout a simple narrative, whereas in Experiment 2, writers composed continuations to complete several narratives. The results indicate that causality indeed plays a major role in composition. Writers tend to produce new text in such a way that it is causally connected to the prior text. Furthermore, writers favored causal relations of necessity or of necessity and sufficiency while largely avoiding relations of sufficiency alone, which suggests a general discourse constraint to be maximally informative (e.g., Grice, 1975).