An application of the state-trait concept to the need for achievement

This study concerned relationships between state (situationally defined) n Ach, trait n Ach, and sex of subject in 80 college freshmen. Three standard n Ach tests (the Adjective Check List, Personal Preference Schedule, and TAT measures) and the mean of n Ach states measured under nonarousal conditions were used as trait measures. State measures of n Ach were also obtained in four experimental conditions (Social Ability, Success-Failure, Conventional Arousal, and Extrinsic Competition). There were no significant correlations between the four trait measures. The mean of states in the neutral conditions was highly predictive of states in three of the four arousal conditions, but none of the standard trait tests predicted state arousal to any significant extent.     

Pursuing Academic Interests: The Role of Implicit Theories

Students can believe that their academic interests are fixed (entity theory) or malleable (incremental theory). A measure of implicit theories of academic interests was developed to examine how such theories influence students' decisions to retain or change their majors. As hypothesized, entity theorists who believed that they were not doing well in their majors were more likely to choose a new major than were all other groups. This result is consistent with previous findings that entity theorists tend to give up in the face of adversity.     

Reanalysis of Eysenck’s,Gray’s,and Zuckerman’s structural trait models based on a new measure: The Zuckerman–Kuhlman–Aluja Personality Questionnaire (ZKA-PQ)

The aim of this study was to explore the relationships of the dimensions and facets of the Zuckerman–Kuhlman–Aluja Personality Questionnaire (ZKA-PQ) with other psychobiological personality measures: the EPQ-RS (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Revised, shortened version), I₇ (Impulsiveness Questionnaire) and SPSRQ-20 (Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire, 20-item version). It is intended to test if findings reported with Zuckerman’s previous instrument (ZK-PQ) about the relationships between the three biologic-factorial personality models are replicated, giving evidence about the validity of the ZKA-PQ. The sample analyzed was of 584 subjects (50.3% men and 49.7% women) from the Spanish general population. Correlational and factor analysis supported the expected relationships between similar constructs assessed by the ZKA-PQ and the other questionnaires based on Eysenck’s and Gray’s personality theories. On the other hand, the inclusion of the facets from the ZKA-PQ improved the validity of the questionnaire. Findings were discussed in the framework of the biological personality models, emphasizing the contribution of the ZKA-PQ to the psychobiological personality research.     

Encouraging Bystanders to Promote Positive Parenting and Prevent Child Maltreatment in Retail Settings: Results of an Exploratory Qualitative Study

Community-level bystander approaches with media campaigns have successfully reduced sexual violence, but these programs have not been developed for child maltreatment prevention. This study informs the development of such programs in retail settings. Data were collected using focus groups with parents (n = 29) and surveys with child abuse experts (n = 10). Participants were asked how retail environments and employees could support parents during shopping excursions and what employees should do if they witnessed a concerning interaction. Participants highlighted (a) the need for in-depth training of employees to engage with parents and children to promote positive interactions and intervene in concerning situations; (b) the importance of the built environment (i.e., physical design and layout) to reduce stress and establish positive social norms through store-wide messaging; and (c) the role of parents in establishing expectations and actively including children in shopping. Future research should test approaches to training and engaging retail employees as supportive bystanders.     

Testing discrepancy effects: A critique, a suggestion, and an illustration

To assess the effects of discrepancy between two independent variables, investigators sometimes compute difference scores and correlate such scores with a criterion variable. However, the correlation of the difference with the criterion is accounted for by the correlations of the difference constituents with the criterion and the constituents’ variances. It follows that when investigators are testing a prediction that is not captured by the difference constituents’ main effects, using the difference correlation analysis may be misleading. Under these circumstances, the effects of a discrepancy between two independent variables can be assessed by a test of their interaction. The problems inherent in using difference scores and the advantage of testing the interaction are illustrated in relation to research programs on two separate topics in social psychology.     

Mathematical foundations of consciousness

We employ the Zermelo–Fränkel Axioms that characterize sets as mathematical primitives. The Anti-foundation Axiom plays a significant role in our development, since among other of its features, its replacement for the Axiom of Foundation in the Zermelo–Fränkel Axioms motivates Platonic interpretations. These interpretations also depend on such allied notions for sets as pictures, graphs, decorations, labelings and various mappings that we use. A syntax and semantics of operators acting on sets is developed. Such features enable construction of a theory of non-well-founded sets that we use to frame mathematical foundations of consciousness. To do this we introduce a supplementary axiomatic system that characterizes experience and consciousness as primitives. The new axioms proceed through characterization of so-called consciousness operators. The Russell operator plays a central role and is shown to be one example of a consciousness operator. Neural networks supply striking examples of non-well-founded graphs the decorations of which generate associated sets, each with a Platonic aspect. Employing our foundations, we show how the supervening of consciousness on its neural correlates in the brain enables the framing of a theory of consciousness by applying appropriate consciousness operators to the generated sets in question.