The influence of introversion/extraversion on the skin conductance response to stress and stimulus intensity

A series of studies compared skin conductance level (SCL) for introverts and extraverts during a series of tones varying in both stimulus intensity (SI) and the amount of stress preceding the tones. When a difficult paired-associate task preceded the tones, both groups were about the same for 83 dB tones but extraverts were much higher at 103 dB, introverts failing to show an increase as a function of SI. There were no differences between the two groups following a simple paired-associate task, both groups showing a similar increase with increased SI. Finally, SCL was higher for introverts than extraverts during tones preceded by a rest period, and this was especially true for the early trials and for lower SI (75 and 83 dB compared with 100 and 103 dB). Taken together, these results suggest that SCL is higher for extraverts at higher levels of arousal but that the reverse is true for lower levels of arousal. This relationship is consistent with the theory that introverts have a “weak nervous system” which develops transmarginal or protective inhibition under stress.     

The social conditions, consequences and limitations of careers guidance

The recent influence of developmental theories of occupational choice upon guidance practice in Britain is criticised. It is suggested that people do not typically 'choose' occupations in any meaningful sense: they simply take what is available. Moreover, the career of the typical industrial worker cannot be meaningfully understood in terms of self-actualisation and implementing a self-concept: guidance work based upon these concepts is accordingly unrealistic. An adequate theory for understanding school-leavers' transition to employment in Britain needs to be based around the concept not of 'occupational choice', but of 'opportunity structure'. Guidance should concentrate not on raising unrealistic expectations, but on helping people to adjust successfully within the opportunity structures open to them.     

The SSR System 7: A general encoding system with computerized transcription

This report provides an overview of the wide variety of research problems to which the SSR System is being applied and outlines some of the changes in the system that these new challenges have brought about.     

On the theory of uniqueness in measurement

This paper describes problems in the theory of uniqueness which occur when there are two different measurement homomorphisms f and g with g not attainable from f by a transformation on the range of f. In this case, the theories of scale type and of meaningfulness of statements using scales are in trouble. It is shown that unless extreme care is taken in the definitions, it is possible for two measurement homomorphisms of the same fixed relational system to have different scale type and it is possible for seemingly meaningless statements to be judged meaningful.     

Tactile conditioning of an autonomic and somatic response in young infants

Tactile classical conditioning of an autonomic reflex (pupillary dilation and constriction) and a somatic response (eyeblinking) was attempted in two separate experiments with one-month-old infants. The tactile CS was effective for conditioning eyeblinking but was ineffective for elaborating conditional pupillary reflex dilation or constriction. These differences were related to the interaction between stimulus and response in infant conditioning and the source of nervous system innervation of the CR as it relates to conditionability.     

The effect of a pre-shock signal on a free-operant avoidance response

After 25 free-operant avoidance training sessions, a 1-min signal followed by a brief shock was presented on the average of once every 4 min. During the signal, the avoidance schedule was suspended (20 sessions). Response rates during the signal were markedly reduced. Shock rates during non-signalled periods increased. Fifteen additional sessions were given during which the signal was presented without shock. Response rates during signalled periods were greater than previously observed during signalled periods, indicating that signalled shock had suppressive control over a previously acquired avoidance response rate.     

Short-term memory for simultaneously presented visual and auditory signals in the pigeon

A series of divided-attention experiments in which matching to the visual or auditory component of a tone-light compound was compared with matching to visual or auditory elements as sample stimuli were carried out. In 0-s delayed and simultaneous matching procedures, pigeons were able to match visual signals equally well when presented alone or with a tone; tones were matched at a substantially lower level of accuracy when presented with light signals than when presented as elements. In further experiments, it was demonstrated that the interfering effect of a signal light on tone matching was not related to the signaling value of the light, and that the prior presentation of light proactively interfered with auditory delayed matching. These findings indicate a divided attention process in which auditory processing is strongly inhibited in the presence of visual signals.     

An analysis of the physical punishment component of a parent training program

One component of a well-researched, standardized parent training program is to spank children for escape from time-out. The contribution of the spanking component to compliance acquisition in a clinic analog setting was evaluated. Time-out duration and child disruption at time-out release were balanced across spank and no-spank (“barrier”) conditions. Sixteen noncompliant, clinic-referred preschool children participated. The data indicated that both spank and barrier procedures were equally effective at increasing compliance ratios. Physical punishment did not appear to be a critical component. Given prior research, it was concluded that the enforcement of a minimum time-out duration is critical for compliance acquisition within the analog setting.     

Conditions for a Justifiable Careers Education

It is argued that an earlier analysis of careers education and guidance (R.J. Roberts, 1980) provided a justification for careers education at the level of theory, but that for this theory to give rise to practical consequences that can be similarly justified, several conditions have to be met. Six conditions relating to the operation of schools are discussed, and a number of further lines for consideration are identified.     

What makes a task difficult?

Summary This study explores the relationship between different task requirements and children's task performance and ratings of task difficulty. Four hundred and sixty five children (9 to 13 years old) read texts and answered questions, involving well-defined or ill-defined goals and requiring different thought operations. It was found that rated difficulty and performance were highly related for questions involving a well-defined goal. A simple modus ponens inference was easiest, checking most difficult, and recall of the text ranked in the middle. A question, involving an ill-defined goal was rated to be most difficult, whereas performance was quite high. The results confirm the assumptions that judgment of difficulty relies on two sources of information: 1) perception of goal, and 2) perception of processing effort.