Interventionism and Causal Exclusion

A number of writers, myself included, have recently argued that an “interventionist” treatment of causation of the sort defended in Woodward, 2003 can be used to cast light on so‐called “causal exclusion” arguments. This interventionist treatment of causal exclusion has in turn been criticized by other philosophers. This paper responds to these criticisms. It describes an interventionist framework for thinking about causal relationships when supervenience relations are present. I contend that this framework helps us to see that standard arguments for causal exclusion involve mistaken assumptions about what it is appropriate to control for or hold fixed in assessing causal claims. The framework also provides a natural way of capturing the idea that properties that supervene on but that are not identical with realizing properties can be causally efficacious.     

Building Schools’ Readiness to Implement a Comprehensive Approach to School Safety

Research consistently finds that a comprehensive approach to school safety, which integrates the best scientific evidence and solid implementation strategies, offers the greatest potential for preventing youth violence and promoting mental and behavioral health. However, schools and communities encounter enormous challenges in articulating, synthesizing, and implementing all the complex aspects of a comprehensive approach to school safety. This paper aims to bridge the gap between scientific evidence and the application of that evidence in schools and communities by defining the key components of a comprehensive approach to school safety and describing how schools can assess their readiness to implement a comprehensive approach. We use readiness and implementation data from the Safe Communities Safe Schools project to illustrate these challenges and solutions. Our findings suggest that (1) readiness assessment can be combined with feasibility meetings to inform school selection for implementation of a comprehensive approach to school safety and (2) intentionally addressing readiness barriers as part of a comprehensive approach may lead to improvements in readiness (motivation and capacity) to effectively implement a comprehensive approach to school safety.     

Factor Structure of the Beck Depression Inventory—II in a Medical Outpatient Sample

This study examined the factor structure of the Beck Depression Inventory—II (BDI-II) in a sample of 127 individuals referred by their primary care physicians. Using exploratory factor analysis with oblique rotation, a 2-factor model appeared to be the most parsimonious representation of the data. The rotated factors accounted for approximately 53% of the variance. Consistent with previous research, the first factor was interpreted as a somatic–affective dimension and the second factor reflected a cognitive dimension. The correlation between these 2 factors was .79. It appears possible to divide the BDI-II into subscales to facilitate interpretation in medical patients.     

Learning from a failure in threat assessment: 11 questions and not enough answers

Threat assessment theory and practice have evolved significantly since Columbine. The US Secret Service's guidelines for threat assessment include 11 questions that school officials should ask to identify, investigate, and manage students of concern. Yet, no research examines how school officials implement these questions. This qualitative case study examines the way that school officials used the 11 questions with a student of concern, who underwent a threat assessment and 3 months later shot and killed a classmate and himself on school grounds. The data include deposition testimony from 12 school and district officials and more than 8,000 pages of records in the case. For each of the 11 questions, the findings reveal what the threat assessment team knew and might have learned; the findings also demonstrate the importance of multiple sources of information, a multidisciplinary team, and an investigative mindset. The questions may prove difficult to answer in “loosely coupled” systems, like schools, where information is unintentionally lost due to the organization's structural hierarchy, specialization of tasks, and heavy workloads. The findings provide critical lessons learned for threat assessment, information gathering, and violence prevention in schools.     

Physical modality,laws, and counterfactuals

Synthese - Standard philosophical accounts attempt to understand physical modality either in terms of special metaphysical entities and relationships (“relations between universals”,...     

Rural adolescent loneliness and coping strategies

The extent of loneliness of rural adolescents was investigated in relation to aspects of their self-esteem. The study sample consisted of 387 4-H children from rural Nebraska ranging in age from 8 to 20 years. Data were gathered using the Loneliness Inventory (Woodward, 1967), Bachman's (1970) Self-Esteem Scale, and the Coping Strategies Inventory (Woodward, 1987). It was found that rural adolescents have extremely high loneliness scores and that 10 of 12 self-esteem characteristics were significant at the .05 level in relation to loneliness scores. Resources and coping strategies used by the subjects to combat loneliness are provided and implications of the findings discussed.     

The Cognitive Role of Fictionality

The question of the cognitive role of fictionality is this: what is the correct cognitive attitude to take to p, when it is fictional that p? We began by considering one answer to this question, implicit in the work of Kendall Walton, that the correct response to a fictional proposition is to imagine that proposition. However, this approach is silent in cases of fictional incompleteness, where neither p nor its negation are fictional. We argue that that Waltonians should embrace a pluralistic account of the cognitive role of fictional incompleteness: in some cases of fictional incompleteness, we are permitted to resolve the incompleteness during our engagement with the target fiction, and in other cases, we are obliged not to resolve the incompleteness. But though pluralism is accommodated by Walton’s wider account of fictionality, it puts tension on his motivating idea that fictionality stands to the imagination as truth stands to belief. And so we develop a rival conception of the cognitive role of fictionality that is built around a different analogy: on this evidentialist approach, (known) fictionality stands to the imagination as evidence stands to credence.     

Action experience alters 3-month-old infants' perception of others' actions

An intervention facilitated 3-month-old infants' apprehension of objects either prior to (reach first), or after (watch first) viewing another person grasp similar objects in a visual habituation procedure. Action experience facilitated action perception: reach-first infants focused on the relation between the actor and her goal, but watch-first infants did not. Infants' sensitivity to the actor's goal was correlated with their engagement in object-directed contact with the toys. These findings indicate that infants can rapidly form goal-based action representations and suggest a developmental link between infants' goal directed actions and their ability to detect goals in the actions of others.     

Bivalency is costly: bivalent stimuli elicit cautious responding

When performing tasks in alternation, substantial slowing occurs when the stimuli have features relevant to both tasks (i.e., when stimuli are bivalent as opposed to univalent). One possible source of this slowing, herein called a bivalency cost, is that encountering bivalent stimuli leads to a more cautious response style. To investigate this, we employed a paradigm that required performing three simple tasks, with bivalent stimuli occasionally encountered on one task. The results show that regardless of the feature overlap among the stimuli used for the different tasks, the introduction of bivalent stimuli slowed responding on all tasks and it was accompanied by a decrease in response errors. Overall, it appears that bivalent stimuli recruit a more cautious approach to task-switching performance.