Co-occurrent use of cigarettes, alcohol, and coffee in healthy, community-living men and women

Previous studies have examined intra-individual aggregation in the use of cigarettes, alcohol, and coffee by examining the co-occurrent use of any pair of these three substances. A recent literature review failed to find a single investigation that studied use of all three in the same sample. In the present study, co-occurrent use of all three of these substances was examined in crossvalidated subsamples of 226 male and 245 female healthy, community-living, middle-class Americans. A log-linear analysis was used to compare the proportion of smokers, ex-smokers, and nonsmokers categorized as users of more or less amounts of coffee and alcohol. Although most of the intercorrelations were not strong, the results indicate that for both sexes, smokers and ex-smokers were more likely than nonsmokers to drink greater amounts of alcohol and coffee. Furthermore, for smokers, ex-smokers, and nonsmokers, a majority of individuals who reported drinking more alcohol also reported drinking more coffee. Interestingly, the coffee and alcohol consumption levels of ex-smokers resembled those of smokers more than those of nonsmokers. Also, ex-smokers reported drinking more wine and decaffeinated coffee than either smokers or nonsmokers. Finally, the number of cigarettes smoked per day (daily quantity) was positively related to total alcohol and coffee consumption in men, but not in women. Further studies are recommended to examine the role of individual differences in the development, maintenance, and modification of these three appetitive habits and their co-occurrence.     

Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) spatial problem solving with the use of mirrors and televised equivalents of mirrors

Two adult male chimpanzees reached through a hole in the wall of their home cage and, by tracking the images of their hands and of an otherwise hidden target object in a mirror or closed-circuit television picture, moved their hands in whichever direction was necessary to make contact with the target object. They discriminated between live video images and tapes and performed effectively when the target objects were presented in novel locations and when the video picture was presented at random in different orientations. There was thus no consistent relation between the location of images on the monitor and the location of their real-world counterparts. Comparable performances in monkeys and nonprimates seem unlikely.     

Responsiveness to estrous chemostimuli in male rats (Rattus norvegicus) of different ages

Previous findings indicate that Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) respond differentially to estrous chemostimuli in early infancy and that adult male sexual responsiveness to such chemostimuli depends on infantile experience with suckling odors (Fillion & Blass, in press). The development of behavioral responsiveness to estrous chemostimuli in male rats from late infancy to adulthood was examined in this study. Preweanling, adolescent, and adult males were observed for 20 min in the presence of an anesthetized estrous or an anesthetized diestrous female. This was, for adolescent and adult subjects, the first heterosexual encounter since weaning. Rats in each age-group responded differentially according to female state, but in distinct, age-related ways. Preweanling spent more time investigating the female's body if she was estrous. Adults expressed the same affinity but by more focused investigation directed perivaginally. Adolescents showed no female-directed bias but groomed themselves more if the female was estrous. These data identify developmental continuities and discontinuities in male rat behavior toward sexually receptive females.     

Contextual stimulus control of conditional vasomotor and electrodermal reactions to angry and friendly faces

An experiment with 42 human Ss used the transswitching procedure to examine tonic stimulus control of phasic and tonic conditioned vasomotor heart rate, and electrodermal reactions. The conditional stimulus (CSs) were photos of angry and friendly human faces, and the unconditional stimulus (US) was a human scream. In one tonic context (blue light), the CSs were paired with the US, in the other context (yellow light), the CSs were presented unpaired. Following acquisition, an extinction series was run with the US omitted during both tonic contexts. Phasic vasomotor and skin conductance reactions differed in the positive and negative tonic segments (stronger in positive). The skin conductance responses also differed during extinction, but the vasomotor responses did not. Tonic differences (following onset of the tonic stimuli) in unelicited skin conductance response frequency, finger pulse volume, and heart rate were also found, although these developed more slowly than the phasic differences. The finger pulse volume tonic difference was greater in extinction than the skin conductance response frequency. There was no effect of the angry-friendly facial expressions, either directly or in interaction with the transswitching effects. The results were interpreted to mean that the transswitching phenomenon is not limited to one another autonomic effector, but is more generalized across the ANS (sympathetic branch). The absence of influence of the facial expressions indicates the relative weakness of the “preparedness” hypothesis in comparison with more influential contextual factors.     

The borderline hypertensive rat (BHR): A new model for the study of environmental factors in the development of hypertension

While many studies have attempted to produce hypertension through the use of various environmental Stressors, few have succeeded in producing chronic elevations in blood pressure beyond levels considered to be borderline hypertensive (140–160 mm Hg systolic). The problem with most studies stems from the use of genetically normotensive animals and the selection of Stressors to which animals readily adapt. A new approach is suggested, which recognizes the role of genetics in human essential hypertension. Animals with one hypertensive parent do not develop spontaneous hypertension but show a more sensitive cardiovascular response to environmental Stressors than animals with normotensive parents. Preliminary studies revealed that animals with a mixed genetic history of hypertension develop spontaneous borderline hypertension. When subjected to shock-shock conflict, these borderline hypertensive rats (BHR) developed permanent hypertension that failed to abate even after a ten-week, shock-free recovery period. The hypertension was accompanied by elevated heart weight to body weight ratios and by significant cardiac pathology. Subsequent work has demonstrated that these animals also become hypertensive when fed a high-sodium diet. Finally, in a series of exercise studies, we found that BHRs subjected to a shock stressor were protected against stress-induced hypertension if they exercised daily. The potential of this model for studies of the mechanisms by which environmental variables produce permanent hypertension is discussed.     

Achromatic color categories

Sternheim and Boynton’s (1966) continuous judgmental color-naming technique was used to assess the elemental nature of achromatic colors. Results from three subjects indicate that the names “black” and “white” are necessary and sufficient to describe achromatic test lights associated with the name “gray.” On the basis of the criteria that establishes a color as elemental, black and white were confirmed as elemental, whereas gray was not. These findings support the assumption of various opponent processing models that there are only two elemental achromatic sensations. In addition, the results support Hering’s (1920) view that black and white differ from the paired-chromatic opponent colors in that they are not mutually exclusive.