The development of executive function in early childhood is inversely related to change in body mass index: Evidence for an energetic tradeoff?

A well‐established literature demonstrates executive function (EF) deficits in obese children and adults relative to healthy weight comparisons. EF deficits in obesity are associated with overeating and impulsive consumption of high calorie foods leading to excess weight gain and to problems with metabolic regulation and low‐grade inflammation that detrimentally affect the structure and function of prefrontal cortex. Here, we test a complementary explanation for the relation between EF and body mass index (BMI) grounded in the energy demand of the developing brain. Recent work shows that the brain accounts for a lifetime peak of 66% of resting metabolic rate in childhood and that developmental changes in brain energetics and normative changes in body weight gain are closely inversely related. This finding suggests a trade‐off in early childhood between energy used to support brain development versus energy used to support physical growth and fat deposition. To test this theorized energetic trade‐off, we analyzed data from a large longitudinal sample (N = 1,292) and found that change in EF from age 3 to 5 years, as a proxy for brain development in energetically costly prefrontal cortex, is inversely related to change in BMI from age 2 to 5 years. Greater linear decline in BMI predicted greater linear increase in EF. We interpret this finding as tentative support for a brain–body energetic trade‐off in early childhood with implications for lifetime obesity risk.     

Investigating honesty-humility and impulsivity as predictors of aggression in children and youth

Among adult and adolescent populations, the personality trait of honesty-humility (HH) has been linked to aggression. For example, adults low in HH have been found to exhibit higher levels of workplace delinquency and revenge motivation, and adolescent low in HH are more likely to bully others. However, there is a paucity of research examining this relationship in children and youth, and how these relationships develop over time. The current study addressed these gaps in the literature by assessing whether HH and impulsivity are independently associated with aggression in children Grades 3 through 8 (N = 1201). Using data from the two waves of a longitudinal project, autoregressive crossed-lagged path analysis was used to examine the bidirectional relationships between HH, impulsivity, and aggression over a 1-year period. Results revealed significant bidirectional relationships between HH and aggression, such that lower scores of HH at Time 1 were associated with higher scores of aggression at Time 2 and vice versa. Similarly, higher scores of impulsivity at Time 1 were associated with higher scores of aggression at Time 2 and vice versa. In addition, these relationships were strongest in boys and at higher ages. Consistent with research in other populations, these results indicate that low HH and high impulsivity are linked to aggression in children and youth. Further, our results demonstrate that HH and impulsivity bidirectionally impact aggression as one age, suggesting a need for early intervention.     

A longitudinal study of the association between violent video game play and aggression among adolescents

In the past 2 decades, correlational and experimental studies have found a positive association between violent video game play and aggression. There is less evidence, however, to support a long-term relation between these behaviors. This study examined sustained violent video game play and adolescent aggressive behavior across the high school years and directly assessed the socialization (violent video game play predicts aggression over time) versus selection hypotheses (aggression predicts violent video game play over time). Adolescents (N = 1,492, 50.8% female) were surveyed annually from Grade 9 to Grade 12 about their video game play and aggressive behaviors. Nonviolent video game play, frequency of overall video game play, and a comprehensive set of potential 3rd variables were included as covariates in each analysis. Sustained violent video game play was significantly related to steeper increases in adolescents' trajectory of aggressive behavior over time. Moreover, greater violent video game play predicted higher levels of aggression over time, after controlling for previous levels of aggression, supporting the socialization hypothesis. In contrast, no support was found for the selection hypothesis. Nonviolent video game play also did not predict higher levels of aggressive behavior over time. Our findings, and the fact that many adolescents play video games for several hours every day, underscore the need for a greater understanding of the long-term relation between violent video games and aggression, as well as the specific game characteristics (e.g., violent content, competition, pace of action) that may be responsible for this association.     

Adolescent turning points: the association between meaning-making and psychological well-being

Research findings indicate that the ability to create meaning out of turning points (i.e., significant life experiences) is related to psychological well-being. It is not clear, however, whether individuals who report meaning-making and higher well-being are better adjusted prior to the experience of their turning point event. This study examined whether meaning-making and timing of turning points would be associated with higher scores on well-being. Participants were 418 Grade 12 students (209 of whom reported having had a turning point event and a matched group of 209 adolescents who did not report having had a turning point event). This subset of participants was taken from a larger longitudinal study of 803 (52% female) Grade 12 Canadian students (M age = 17 years). All participants completed well-being measures 3 years prior, when they were in Grade 9. Meaning-making was significantly associated with higher psychological well-being, controlling for Grade 9 scores on well-being. Importantly, adolescents who reported meaning-making in Grade 12 did not differ on well-being prior to the experience of their turning point event, when they were in Grade 9, from adolescents who did not report meaning-making. These findings highlight the importance of examining meaning-making in relation to positive adjustment among adolescents reporting a significant life-changing event. Limitations regarding the use of survey measures and the generalizability of the results to a culturally diverse group of adolescents are discussed.     

Psychophysiological responses to sport-specific affective pictures: A study of morality and emotion in athletes

ObjectivesThe link between morality and emotion has received little attention in the sport context. To address this issue, we examined whether moral disengagement, empathy, antisocial behaviour and psychopathy were associated with emotional reactions to unpleasant pictures depicting players being hurt or deliberately fouled in a sport context.DesignA cross-sectional design was employed.MethodTeam sport athletes (N = 66) completed measures of moral disengagement, empathy, antisocial behaviour and psychopathy and then viewed unpleasant, neutral, and pleasant sport pictures while emotional reactions to the pictures were assessed using valence and arousal ratings of the pictures as well as electrocutaneous startle blink, heart rate, skin conductance, and evoked potentials.ResultsMoral disengagement, empathy and psychopathy, but not antisocial behaviour, were associated with emotional reactions to the unpleasant pictures. Specifically, moral disengagement was related to attenuated startle blink responses and higher valence (less unpleasant) ratings, whereas empathy was associated with lower valence (more unpleasant) ratings. Psychopathy was associated with smaller startle blink responses and less heart rate deceleration.ConclusionOur findings provide support for the link between morality and emotion in athletes. Moral variables may be more closely linked with specific measures of emotion, highlighting the utility of taking a multi-measure approach in the assessment of emotion.     

Three post-Vietnam “rap/therapy” groups: An analysis

An analysis is presented of the content and process over a one year's period of time of 81 sessions with three therapy groups of help-seeking Vietnam theater veterans. Data were collected concerning the frequency and content of the symptoms and issues that were discussed, the frequency and relationship of the discussion of current life issues versus Vietnam and pre- and post-Vietnam life issues, the predominant therapeutic themes that emerged in the groups, and the kinds of therapy interventions provided. Implications are discussed regarding the DSM-III inclusionary symptom criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder, and the structure and format to facilitate a combined rap and therapy group process with Vietnam veterans.The opinions of the authors do not reflect official Veterans Administration policy and should not be so construed.     

Emotional well-being of college students in health courses with and without an exercise component

This study was designed to examine the effects of exercise on indices of emotional well-being of 584 college students enrolled in either a lecture-only health course or one of six health-fitness courses, each using a different mode of exercise including cross-training, aerobics, yoga, circuit weight training, swimming, and walk/jog. Each participant completed the Self-perception Profile for College Students developed by Neeman and Harter. Analysis yielded significant differences on five indices of emotional well-being (Global Self-worth, Appearance, Romantic Relationships, Social Acceptance, and Athletic Competence) between pre- and posttest scores of participants enrolled in the health-fitness courses, while no differences were found between pre-and posttest scores of participants enrolled in the lecture-only health course. Of the seven subscales examined, a significant interaction effect was found between sex/time and Romantic Relationships/Athletic Competence, with women reporting greater gains than men.     

Measuring executive function skills in young children in Kenya

Interest in measuring executive function skills in young children in low- and middle-income country contexts has been stymied by the lack of assessments that are both easy to deploy and scalable. This study reports on an initial effort to develop a tablet-based battery of executive function tasks, which were designed and extensively studied in the United States, for use in Kenya. Participants were 193 children, aged 3–6 years old, who attended early childhood development and education centers. The rates of individual task completion were high (65–100%), and 85% of children completed three or more tasks. Assessors indicated that 90% of all task administrations were of acceptable quality. An executive function composite score was approximately normally distributed, despite higher-than-expected floor and ceiling effects on inhibitory control tasks. Children’s simple reaction time (β = –0.20, p = .004), attention-related behaviors during testing (β = 0.24, p = .0005), and age (β = –0.24, p = .0009) were all uniquely related to performance on the executive function composite. Results are discussed as they inform efforts to develop valid and reliable measures of executive function skills among young children in developing country contexts.