Retrieval of autobiographical memories: The mechanisms and consequences of truncated search

Five studies examined the extent to which autobiographical memory retrieval is hierarchical, whether a hierarchical search depends on central executive resources, and whether retrieving memories that are “higher” in the hierarchy impairs problem‐solving ability. The first study found that random generation (assessed using a button‐pressing task) was sensitive to changes in memory load (digit span). The second study showed that when participants fail to retrieve a target event, they respond with a memory that is higher up the hierarchy. The third study showed that memory is more generic only when participants use low imageable cues under cognitive load. The final two experiments showed that experimental manipulation of memory specificity affects problem solving (MEPS performance). The data are consistent with Conway and Pleydell‐Pearce's hierarchical retrieval model of autobiographical memory, and suggest that overgeneral memory in nonclinical participants is associated with reduced executive capacity only when retrieval is “top‐down” (generative).     

Manipulating recall vantage perspective of intrusive memories in dysphoria

The current study attempted to experimentally manipulate mode of recall (field, observer perspective) in a sample of mildly dysphoric participants (N=134) who reported a distressing intrusive memory of negative autobiographical event. Specifically, the current study sought to ascertain whether shifting participants into a converse perspective would have differential effects on the reported experience of their memory. Results indicated that shifting participants from a field to an observer perspective resulted in decreased experiential ratings: specifically, reduced distress and vividness. Also, as anticipated, the converse shift in perspective (from observer to field) did not lead to a corresponding increase in experiential ratings, but did result in reduced ratings of observation and a trend was observed for decreased levels of detachment. The findings support the notion that recall perspective has a functional role in the regulation of intrusion-related distress and represents a cognitive avoidance mechanism.     

Extended energy-loss fine structure analysis of 3d transition metals using L ionization edges

The extended energy-loss fine structure (EXELFS) in electron-energy-loss spectroscopy has been compared experimentally with the extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS), for determining local structure around 3d transition metals. Since the EXELFS spectrum is acquired in an analytical transmission electron microscope, the probing beam can be focused to offer a lateral spatial resolution in the nanometre range, which is several orders of magnitude better than that of X-rays. Also, the microscope allows the area of interest to be imaged and analysed by other methods. However, difficulties in the analysis of EXELFS of 3d transition metals arise from the overlap of the edges in the accessible L series. EXELFS of L ionization edges of crystalline Ni and Cu were examined as test specimens. The overlapped L₁,L₂ and L₃ edges were separated and compared with the K-edge EXAFS of the same samples. The first- and second-nearest-neighbour distances from EXELFS are in agreement with those measured from EXAFS and X-ray diffraction. As a structural probe, however, the accuracy of quantitative analysis of EXAFS is still superior since the L-edge EXELFS decays more rapidly than K-edge EXAFS.     

Is overgeneral autobiographical memory an isolated memory phenomenon in major depression?

The present study explored the relation between overgeneral autobiographical memory (AM) and other aspects of memory functioning in depression. A total of 26 patients with major depressive disorder completed a set of memory tasks measuring AM specificity (AMT; Williams & Broadbent, 1986), working memory, semantic memory, verbal learning, delayed verbal recall, recognition memory, and source memory. Reduced specificity of AM was related to poor working memory (central executive functioning) and poor source memory. The former finding conforms to the idea that the voluntary retrieval of specific autobiographical memories (AMs) involves central executive processes (e.g., Conway & Pleydell-Pearce, 2000 Conway, M. A. and Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. 2000. The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107: 261–288. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The latter finding replicates and extends recent findings suggesting that overgeneral AM is part of a broader memory deficit in retrieving the specific details of the context in which information was acquired (Ramponi, Barnard, & Nimmo-Smith, 2004 Raes , F. , Hermans , D. , Williams , J. M. G. , Demyttenaere , K. , Sabbe , B. , Pieters , G . & Eelen , P. ( 2004 ). Reduced specificity of autobiographical memory: A mediator between rumination and ineffective social problem solving in major depression? Journal of affective disorders , 87 , 331 – 335  [Google Scholar]). Furthermore, in line with Ramponi et al. (2004 Raes , F. , Hermans , D. , Williams , J. M. G. , Demyttenaere , K. , Sabbe , B. , Pieters , G . & Eelen , P. ( 2004 ). Reduced specificity of autobiographical memory: A mediator between rumination and ineffective social problem solving in major depression? Journal of affective disorders , 87 , 331 – 335  [Google Scholar]), rumination was found to be related to both overgeneral AM and poor source memory.     

Operant conditioning of autobiographical memory retrieval

Functional avoidance is considered as one of the key mechanisms underlying overgeneral autobiographical memory (OGM). According to this view OGM is regarded as a learned cognitive avoidance strategy, based on principles of operant conditioning; i.e., individuals learn to avoid the emotionally painful consequences associated with the retrieval of specific negative memories. The aim of the present study was to test one of the basic assumptions of the functional avoidance account, namely that autobiographical memory retrieval can be brought under operant control. Here 41 students were instructed to retrieve personal memories in response to 60 emotional cue words. Depending on the condition, they were punished with an aversive sound for the retrieval of specific or nonspecific memories in an operant conditioning procedure. Analyzes showed that the course of memory specificity significantly differed between conditions. After the procedure participants punished for nonspecific memories retrieved significantly more specific memories compared to participants punished for specific memories. However, whereas memory specificity significantly increased in participants punished for specific memories, it did not significantly decrease in participants punished for nonspecific memories. Thus, while our findings indicate that autobiographical memory retrieval can be brought under operant control, they do not support a functional avoidance view on OGM.     

Explanation and prior knowledge interact to guide learning

How do explaining and prior knowledge contribute to learning? Four experiments explored the relationship between explanation and prior knowledge in category learning. The experiments independently manipulated whether participants were prompted to explain the category membership of study observations and whether category labels were informative in allowing participants to relate prior knowledge to patterns underlying category membership. The experiments revealed a superadditive interaction between explanation and informative labels, with explainers who received informative labels most likely to discover (Experiments 1 and 2) and generalize (Experiments 3 and 4) a pattern consistent with prior knowledge. However, explainers were no more likely than controls to discover multiple patterns (Experiments 1 and 2), indicating that effects of explanation are relatively targeted. We suggest that explanation recruits prior knowledge to assess whether candidate patterns are likely to have broad scope (i.e., to generalize within and beyond study observations). This interpretation is supported by the finding that effects of explanation on prior knowledge were attenuated when learners believed prior knowledge was irrelevant to generalizing category membership (Experiment 4). This research provides evidence that explanation can serve as a mechanism for deploying prior knowledge to assess the scope of observed patterns.     

Adolescents,Risk Behaviour and Confidentiality: When Would Australian Psychologists Breach Confidentiality to Disclose Information to Parents?

The protection of confidentiality in psychological practice is vital. However, confidentiality is not absolute and psychologists are permitted to breach confidentiality under particular circumstances. Ethical challenges surrounding confidentiality are complex with adolescent clients, as assessments often consider the risk that adolescents pose to themselves in addition to the risk posed to others. The current study documented situations in which Australian psychologists would breach adolescents' confidentiality to disclose information about risk behaviour to parents, with a focus on situations where adolescents posed a risk to themselves as opposed to other people putting adolescents at risk. A total of 264 Australian psychologists were surveyed online. They were each presented with 68 variations of a vignette about a 15‐year‐old boy who was engaged in risk behaviour and were asked whether they would breach confidentiality in each case. The vignettes covered six behavioural domains (smoking, sexual behaviour, drinking, drug use, suicide, stealing) and varied in behaviour intensity, frequency and duration. Consensus was reached about breaching confidentiality in 16% of cases (related to sexual behaviour, drug use, and suicide). Consensus was reached about not breaching confidentiality in 41% of cases (relating to smoking, sexual behaviour, drug use, suicide, and stealing). In the remaining 43% of cases, significant disagreement occurred (relating to all six behavioural domains). The findings suggest a high degree of variation in opinion about confidentiality with adolescents, emphasising the importance of transparent communication and informed consent. The findings also raise questions about how important consistency of psychological practice is across Australia.     

Effects of Number of Alternatives on the Psychological Refractoriness of an Extended Movement,

The single-channel prediction that delays in RT₂ should be proportional to RT₁ was examined by varying the number of alternatives (one, two, or three) in the primary response which was an extended arm swing at maximal speed. The second response was a thumb key release. Foreperiods were 2, 3, or 4 sec., and interstimulus intervals (ISIs) ranged from .10:50 sec. in .10-sec. steps. General support for the single-channel model was found in that RT₂ paralleled changes in RT₁. However, RT₂ was greater than predicted when the second signal (S₂) occurred during the execution of the primary response. In addition, while delays in RT₂ as a function of ISI – RT₁ showed corresponding differences between choice conditions, most values were greater than predicted. The deviations from the single-channel model appeared to be explained best in terms of a decrease in readiness to respond to the second signal as ISI lengthened.     

The Effects of Practice Trials and Prior Learning on Motor Memory

The effects of prior positions (PL), practice reinforcements of the criterion distance (CT), and retention intervals on proactive interference (PI) in a 20-cm. linear positioning task were examined. Independent treatment groups had either 0, 3, or 5 PL, with 1, 3, or 10 CT, and a 5-, 15-, or 50-sec. retention interval. Only absolute error scores at recall indicated PI. This forgetting occurred only under the highly restricted conditions of 5 PL and 1 CT after 15-and 50-sec. retention intervals. Since 0 PL groups showed no differences in recall over levels of retention intervals, PI alone apparently caused the forgetting.