Bayesian Rationality for the Wason Selection Task? A Test of Optimal Data Selection Theory

Oaksford and Chater (1994) proposed to analyse the Wason selection task as an inductive instead of a deductive task. Applying Bayesian statistics, they concluded that the cards that participants tend to select are those with the highest expected information gain. Therefore, their choices seem rational from the perspective of optimal data selection. We tested a central prediction from the theory in three experiments: card selection frequencies should be sensitive to the subjective probability of occurrence for individual cards. In Experiment 1, expected frequencies of the p- and the q-card were manipulated independently by concepts referring to large vs. small sets. Although the manipulation had an effect on card selection frequencies, there was only a weak correlation between the predicted and the observed patterns. In the second experiment, relative frequencies of individual cards were manipulated more directly by explicit frequency information. In addition, participants estimated probabilities for the four logical cases and of the conditional statement itself. The experimental manipulations strongly affected the probability estimates, but were completely unrelated to card selections. This result was replicated in a third experiment. We conclude that our data provide little support for optimal data selection theory.     

Contingency learning and stereotype formation: Illusory and spurious correlations revisited

The ability of implicit measures to predict behaviour varies greatly across studies, emphasising the need for accounts of this variability. In order to organise and review the literature on moderators that influence individuals' information processing, we suggest a classification system of moderators with two dimensions. One dimension distinguishes moderators according to their influence on the opportunity to control, the motivation to control, or the reliance on either automatic or controlled processes without changes in opportunity or motivation. The second dimension classifies moderators according to whether they pertain to a disposition of the acting person, the situation in which the behaviour occurs, or the behaviour itself. Increased predictive validity of implicit measures is associated with conditions that foster the impact of automatic processes on behaviour determination. In the discussion we derive several additional moderators from the classification system, delineate emerging research questions, and discuss implications of the reviewed studies for research on self-regulation.     

The nuclear plant accident in chernobyl experienced by men and women of different ages: Empirical study in the years 1986–1991

Abstract

Psychological responses to the nuclear accident in Chernobyl were assessed in several self-report inventories once a year from May 1986 until May 1991. Independent groups of subjects, divided according to sex and age (18–39 versus 40–59 years) were examined at six points in time for the subjective effects of the nuclear accident. The inventories included items related to attitudes, behavior, emotional states and coping styles. The results showed a generally greater emotional concern for women and for younger people. The findings also suggest that the psychological effects of the nuclear accident are long lasting.     

On anxiety-specific actions of tranquilizers

Abstract

This study examined the role of social support in the relationship between work demand and psychological distress (GHQ 12) in correctional officers (N=419), a high stress occupational group. Work demands were positively associated with strain. There was no evidence that social support buffered the negative impact of work demands. Rather, consistent with most previous research findings, support showed direct benefits and these were discussed in the context of worker participation and control. The hypothesis that officers high in negative affectivity, as measured by trait anxiety would show greater reactivity to work demands was not supported. However, trait anxiety appeared to inflate the relationship between work stressors (work demand and work support) and psychological distress supporting recent suggestions that the role of trait anxiety in occupational stress should not be disregarded. Trait anxiety combined additively with work demand to predict individual differences in psychological distress, however social support moderated the impact of trait anxiety on strain.     

TEACHING ABOUT LOSS

In this article, we develop a case for teaching about loss as part of social and behavioral science curricula. We discuss the first author's development of a class that focuses on loss and trauma. This class emphasizes the view of loss as a pervasive aspect of human life and that it is the core experience for other phenomena, including trauma and chronic illness. The course involves a component in which students write about some loss experience that may reflect their personal life. This component permits many students to express pain, sometimes for one of the first times in their lives, regarding the events in question and relate their experience to what they have learned in the course. Significant features of the course are a score of videos and guest presentations, documenting the diversity of loss and people's myriad ways of coping with loss. It is argued that the course and students' experiences in fulfilling course requirements speak to the gains that may be realized by honest, in-depth probing of losses within the context of psychological and other literatures.     

Internal stress and defect-related free volume in submicrocrystalline Ni studied by neutron diffraction and difference dilatometry

A combined study of neutron diffraction and difference dilatometry on submicrocrystalline Ni prepared by high pressure torsion aims at studying the anisotropic behaviour during dilatometry and its relation to internal stress and structural anisotropy. Macroscopic stresses were undetectable in the dilatometer samples. Along with specific tests such as post cold-rolling, this shows that an observed anisotropic length change upon annealing is not caused by internal stress, but can be explained by the inherent microstructure, i.e. the anisotropic annealing of relaxed vacancies at grain boundaries of shape-anisotropic crystallites.     

Saving or Subordinating Life? Popular Views in Israel and Germany of Donor Siblings Created through PGD

To explore how cultural beliefs are reflected in different popular views of pre-implantation genetic diagnosis for human leukocyte antigen match (popularly known as “savior siblings”), we compare the reception and interpretations, in Germany and Israel, of the novel/film My Sister’s Keeper. Qualitative analysis of reviews, commentaries and posts is used to classify and compare normative assessments of PGD for HLA and how they reproduce, negotiate or oppose the national policy and its underlying cultural and ethical premises. Four major themes emanated from the comparison: loss of self-determination and autonomy; loss of dignity through instrumentalization; eugenics and euthanasia; and saving life. In both countries, most commentaries represented a dominant position, with a few negotiated positions. We also highlight the decoding of a relatively less explored bioethical aspect of My Sister’s Keeper’s narrative, namely the meaning of euthanasia. We conclude by discussing how the findings relate to attempts of providing cultural explanations for the regulation of HLA-PGD.     

Modular cognitive-behavioral therapy for body dysmorphic disorder

This study pilot tested a newly developed modular cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) treatment manual for body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). We tested feasibility, acceptability, and treatment outcome in a sample of 12 adults with primary BDD. Treatment was delivered in weekly individual sessions over 18 or 22 weeks. Standardized clinician ratings and self-report measures were used to assess BDD and related symptoms pre- and posttreatment and at 3- and 6-month follow-ups. At posttreatment, BDD and related symptoms (e.g., mood) were significantly improved. Treatment gains were maintained at follow-up. A relatively low drop-out rate, high patient satisfaction ratings, and patient feedback indicated that the treatment was highly acceptable to patients. To our knowledge, this represents the first test of a broadly applicable, individual psychosocial treatment for BDD.     

Don't hide your happiness! Positive emotion dissociation, social connectedness, and psychological functioning

It is now clear that positive emotion leads to enhanced psychological functioning. What is less clear, however, is just why this is so. Drawing on a social-functional perspective, we argue that positive emotional behavior that accurately signals to others the individual's internal state will enhance social connectedness. Positive emotional behavior that does not accurately signal a person's experience--such as a smile that is not felt--may impede social connectedness and, in turn, psychological functioning. This perspective suggests that (a) the degree to which experience and behavior are dissociated during positive emotional episodes, over and above level of positive behavior, should predict worse psychological functioning and (b) the effect of dissociation should be mediated by social connectedness. To test these hypotheses, we conducted a short-term prospective longitudinal study, with a baseline assessment of depressive symptoms and well-being at Time 1. Six months later, at Time 2, we used a novel within-individual laboratory paradigm to measure the degree to which positive emotional behavior was dissociated from (vs. coherent with) a participant's positive emotional experience. We also assessed level of positive behavior and experience. Then, another 6 months later, we assessed social connectedness as a mediator and depressive symptoms and well-being as outcomes at Time 3. Even when controlling for baseline functioning and for level of positive emotion behavior and experience, we found that greater positive experience-behavior dissociation at Time 2 predicted higher levels of depressive symptoms and lower levels of well-being at Time 3. As predicted, these associations were mediated by social connectedness.