The Haskins Laboratories’ pulse code modulation (PCM) system

The pulse code modulation (PCM) method of digitizing analog signals has become a standard both in digital audio and in speech research, the focus of this paper. The solutions to some problems encountered in earlier systems at Haskins Laboratories are outlined, along with general properties of A/D conversion. Specialized features of the current Haskins Laboratories system, which has also been installed at more than a dozen other laboratories, are also detailed: the Nyquist filter response, the high-frequency preemphasis filter characteristics, the dynamic range, the timing resolution for single- and (synchronized) dual-channel signals, and the form of the digitized speech files (header information, data, and label structure). While the solutions adopted in this system are not intended to be considered a standard, the design principles involved are of interest to users and creators of other PCM systems.     

Studies in the learning function

From Thurstone's theoretical learning curve, a solution for the difficulty of the problem and the learning constant of the subject has been developed. The curve is an equilateral hyperbola. Therefore the semi-major axis represents the learning situation in one constant. The vertex of the curve is a point where all of the animals are equated, since they are all making errors at the rate of one error per trial.A grant-in-aid from the National Research Council has made the present analysis possible. We wish to express our appreciation, for the aid and encouragement, of Professor Rufus Crane of the mathematics department, Ohio Wesleyan University and of Professor L. L. Thurstone, University of Chicago.     

Adult age differences in memory for massed and distributed repeated actions

Adult age differences in memory for actions were investigated in 2 experiments in which actions were repeated with massed or distributed spacing. In Experiment 1, subjects received a mixed series of actions, half performed once, the others twice, with repetitions either massed or distributed. Young subjects recalled more actions than did the elderly, and more distributed actions were recalled than massed actions. However, the Age X Spacing interaction was not significant. A probable inhibitory mechanism with a mixed list was avoided in Experiment 2 by use of unmixed series. Actions were performed once only, twice only in massed repetitions, or twice only in distributed repetitions. The age difference was significant, and more actions were recalled in the distributed condition than in either of the other conditions, the results of which did not differ from one another. The Age X Conditions interaction was negligible. These results imply that elderly subjects are as likely as young subjects to encode contextual information while performing actions.     

Images of adolescence in English literature: the middle ages to the modern period

It is argued that modern images of adolescence are also reflected in English literary tradition. Thus, relevant works of the major authors, Chaucer, More, Locke, Shakespeare, Bayly, Milton, Prior, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Hazlitt, and Dickens, are analyzed for their imagery of youth and adolescence. It is concluded that, with minor exceptions, the way that youth are depicted in these works remains remarkably stable over time. The main theme of adolescence throughout these works is that it is a time of turbulence, excess, and passion. This is in consonance with the modern-day view of adolescence as a time of storm and stress.     

Speech style,gender stereotypes,and corporate success: What if women talk more like men?

This study tests competing socialization- and identity-based hypotheses concerning the impact of variations in speech style (powerful/powerless) on perceptions of male and female managerial job applicants. In addition, we investigate the effect of the gender of the observer on sensitivity to variation in speech style. Supportive of the socialization hypothesis, speech style has a significant effect on expectations of “success” and “acceptance” in a managerial position, as well as on attributions of situationally relevant traits regardless of the gender of the applicant. However, the identity perspective is supported by the finding that gender of the applicant affects perceptions of “liking” and attributions of gender-linked traits. We argue that the relevance of evaluative dimensions and traits for a particular context affects the impact of gender on the interpretation of actions. As predicted, female observers were more sensitive to variations in speech style. In fact, the effects of speech style on evaluations of applicants disappeared when only male responses were considered. The implications of these findings for equal opportunity in hiring and promotion are discussed.     

Effects of titles on the processing of text and lexically ambiguous words: Evidence from eye movements

Providing titles for passages improves the comprehension and memorability of text. Titles have generally been thought to facilitate comprehension at later stages of processing. Consistent with prior research, we found that passages presented with titles were better recalled than those without titles. Furthermore, in Experiment 1, the presence of titles led to fewer regressive eye movements, shorter end-of-sentence reading times, and shorter fixation times on target nouns. Experiments 2 and 3, using ambiguous target words, indicated that except when a very infrequent sense of a word is required, titles provide a strong enough context to allow for ambiguous words to be processed as quickly as control words. The results of the three experiments suggest that titles affect processing at both integrative and lexical stages of reading.     

Born in the USA: how immigrant generation shapes meritocracy and its relation to ethnic identity and collective action

Endorsing meritocracy can make low-status group members more accepting of inequality. This study examined whether rejecting meritocracy is related to increased ethnic identification among Latino immigrants, and whether identity in turn is related to increased support for collective action. We hypothesize that these relationships depend upon immigrant generation. A survey was conducted with 184 first- and second-generation Latino immigrants in New York City. Second-generation Latinos endorsed meritocracy less than those in the first generation, at least in part because they perceived that other Americans viewed their group in a less positive light (i.e., lower public regard). Further, meritocracy was negatively linked to ethnic identity and, through it, support for collective action among the second generation. Among the first generation, meritocracy was not related to ethnic identity and was positively related to support for collective action. We discuss the implications of growing up near the bottom of the U.S. social hierarchy for ethnic identity and collective action.     

When Diversity in Training Improves Dyadic Problem Solving

Students learned how to solve binomial probability problems from either a procedurally based lesson or a conceptually based lesson and then worked in distributed pairs by using a computer‐based chat environment. Cognitively homogeneous dyads (i.e. both members received the same lesson) performed more accurately on standard problems, whereas cognitively diverse dyads (i.e. each member received a different lesson) performed more accurately on transfer problems. The cognitively homogeneous dyads perceived a greater sense of common ground with their partner, but spent a greater proportion of their time communicating about low‐level details (e.g. message verification) whereas the cognitively diverse dyads spent a greater proportion of their time on high‐level discussion (e.g. solution development). Results help to clarify that common training leads to more positive perceptions of collaboration, but only improves performance on problems that are highly similar to those experienced during training, whereas diverse training improves the ability of a dyad to perform well in new situations. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.