Discrimination of a response-independent component in a multiple schedule

Pigeons were trained to respond in non-differential reinforcement pre-discrimination training, with a multiple variable-interval 1-min variable-interval 1-min schedule. Each bird then received discrimination training with a multiple variable-interval 1-min variable-time 1-min schedule. Thus, discrimination training was between response-dependent (variable-interval) and response-independent (variable-time) schedules with the rate of reinforcement equated. In Experiment I, only three sessions of non-differential reinforcement preceded discrimination training and for half the birds, a 0° line was correlated with the response-dependent schedule; for the remaining birds the 0° line was correlated with the response-independent schedule. Post-discrimination gradients of excitatory stimulus control were obtained from the former group, while the latter group showed little evidence of post-discrimination stimulus control by the 0° line. Differential responding to the variable-time schedule was not accompanied by behavioral contrast to the variable-interval schedule. In Experiment II, 20 sessions of non-differential reinforcement preceded discrimination training and the 0° line was correlated with variable-time reinforcement for each bird. Differential responding to the 0° line was accompanied by negative induction to the variable-interval schedule and by inhibitory stimulus control about the 0° line during a post-discrimination generalization test.     

A brief assessment tool for body image in systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) may adversely affect body image in multitude ways. Development and validation of a brief and valid SLE specific body image tool were undertaken. Eleven items were identified on interview of 21 SLE patients for the Body Image Lupus Scale (BILS v1.0). The tool was administered to 70 SLE patients. Based on analysis, feedback, and refinement of items, the final iteration BILS v1.2 with five items was administered to 233 SLE patients along with validated body image measures (Situational Inventory of Body Image Dysphoria and Body Image Quality of Life Inventory) and health-related quality of life measures for a subsample. The BILS scores' had an internal consistency reliability of .94. It correlated with both the referent body image measures, and with health-related quality of life. It differentiated participants by health status and disease activity. Test-retest reliability estimates exceeded .90. These results support the psychometric properties of BILS.     

Expressed emotion, communication deviance, and culture in families of patients with schizophrenia: a review of the literature

The aim of this article is to critically review the literature on expressed emotion (EE), communication deviance (CD), and culture in families of patients with schizophrenia. There is growing evidence that EE and CD are highly linked. Yet the two constructs together predict the development of schizophrenia and the associated symptoms better than either construct alone. In this article, the authors review data indicating that both the expression and the levels of high EE and CD vary by ethnicity. It may be especially difficult for family members to communicate coherently and in a less critical manner when focusing on patients' inability to sustain particular cultural norms and values that are endorsed by their family and ethnic background. The authors propose that more attention to the role of culture in EE and CD and greater focus on the proper assessment of these variables would further enhance our understanding of these constructs.     

Pitch chroma discrimination, generalization, and transfer tests of octave equivalence in humans

Octave equivalence occurs when notes separated by an octave (a doubling in frequency) are judged as being perceptually similar. Considerable evidence points to the importance of the octave in music and speech. Yet, experimental demonstration of octave equivalence has been problematic. Using go/no-go operant discrimination and generalization, we studied octave equivalence in humans. In Experiment 1, we found that a procedure that failed to show octave equivalence in European starlings also failed in humans. In Experiment 2, we modified the procedure to control for the effects of pitch height perception by training participants in Octave 4 and testing in Octave 5. We found that the pattern of responding developed by discrimination training in Octave 4 generalized to Octave 5. We replicated and extended our findings in Experiment 3 by adding a transfer phase: Participants were trained with either the same or a reversed pattern of rewards in Octave 5. Participants transferred easily to the same pattern of reward in Octave 5 but struggled to learn the reversed pattern. We provided minimal instruction, presented no ordered sequences of notes, and used only sine-wave tones, but participants nonetheless constructed pitch chroma information from randomly ordered sequences of notes. Training in music weakly hindered octave generalization but moderately facilitated both positive and negative transfer.     

Chickadees fail standardized operant tests for octave equivalence

Octave equivalence occurs when an observer judges notes separated by a doubling in frequency perceptually similar. The octave appears to form the basis of pitch change in all human cultures and thus may be of biological origin. Previously, we developed a nonverbal operant conditioning test of octave generalization and transfer in humans. The results of this testing showed that humans with and without musical training perceive the octave relationship between pitches. Our goal in the current study was to determine whether black-capped chickadees, a North American songbird, perceive octave equivalence. We chose these chickadees because of their reliance on pitch in assessing conspecific vocalizations, our strong background knowledge on their pitch height perception (log-linear perception of frequency), and the phylogenetic disparity between them and humans. Compared to humans, songbirds are highly skilled at using pitch height perception to classify pitches into ranges, independent of the octave. Our results suggest that chickadees used that skill, rather than octave equivalence, to transfer the note-range discrimination from one octave to the next. In contrast, there is evidence that at least some mammals, including humans, do perceive octave equivalence.     

Nonreligious coping and religious coping as predictors of expressed emotion in relatives of patients with schizophrenia

Expressed emotion (EE) is a measure of the amount of criticism and emotional over involvement expressed by a key relative towards a relative with a disorder or illness. Research has established that living in a high EE environment, which is characterised by increased levels of critical and emotionally exaggerated communication, leads to a poorer prognosis for patients with a mental illness when compared to low EE environments. Despite evidence that EE is a strong predictor of the course of the illness, there continue to be questions concerning why some family members express excessive levels of high EE attitudes about their mentally ill relatives while others do not. Based on indirect evidence from previous research, the current study tested whether religious and nonreligious coping serve as predictors of EE. A sample of 72 family members of patients with schizophrenia completed an EE interview, along with questionnaires assessing situational nonreligious coping and religious coping. In line with the hypotheses, results indicated that nonreligious coping predicted EE. Specifically, less use of adaptive emotion-focused coping predicted high EE. Also consistent with predictions, maladaptive religious coping predicted high EE above and beyond nonreligious coping.